@book{niemi_ai_2023,
	address = {Cham},
	title = {{AI} in {Learning}: {Designing} the {Future}},
	isbn = {978-3-031-09686-0 978-3-031-09687-7},
	shorttitle = {{AI} in {Learning}},
	url = {https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-09687-7},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2022-12-01},
	publisher = {Springer International Publishing},
	editor = {Niemi, Hannele and Pea, Roy D. and Lu, Yu},
	year = {2023},
	doi = {10.1007/978-3-031-09687-7},
	keywords = {Open Access, artificial intelligence, deep learning, games, human-machine interaction, intelligent digital tools, learning analytics, life-long learning, robotics, simulations, tutoring, virtual learning, well-being},
}

@article{kuznetsova_evaluation_2022,
	title = {Evaluation of {Neurofeedback} {Learning} in {Patients} with {ADHD}: {A} {Systematic} {Review}},
	issn = {1573-3270},
	shorttitle = {Evaluation of {Neurofeedback} {Learning} in {Patients} with {ADHD}},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-022-09562-2},
	doi = {10.1007/s10484-022-09562-2},
	abstract = {NFB has a clear potential as a recognised treatment option for ADHD, but suffers from a lack of clarity about its efficacy, still unresolved after multiple controlled trials. Comparing learners and non-learners based on the evolution of patient-level indicators during the trial serves as a ‘natural’ control, and can help elucidate the mechanisms of NFB. We present a systematic review motivated by the need to establish the state of the art of patient learning during NFB treatment in current clinical literature. One particularly striking question we would like to answer here is whether existing NFB papers study learning variability, since only individual performance differences can give us information about mechanisms of learning. The results show that very few clinical trial reports have dealt with the heterogeneity of NFB learning, nor analysed whether NFB efficacy is dependent on NFB learning, even though NFB is believed to be a treatment based on learning to perform. In this systematic review we examine not only what has been reported, but also provide a critical analysis of possible flaws or gaps in existing studies, and discuss why no generalized conclusions about NFB efficacy have yet been made. Future research should focus on finding reliable ways of identifying the performers and studying participants’ individual learning trajectories as it might enhance prognosis and the allocation of clinical resources.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2022-10-05},
	journal = {Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback},
	author = {Kuznetsova, Elizaveta and Veilahti, Antti Veikko Petteri and Akhundzadeh, Ruhoollah and Radev, Stefan and Konicar, Lilian and Cowley, Benjamin Ultan},
	month = sep,
	year = {2022},
	keywords = {ADHD, Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Learning, Learning variability, Neurofeedback},
}

NFB has a clear potential as a recognised treatment option for ADHD, but suffers from a lack of clarity about its efficacy, still unresolved after multiple controlled trials. Comparing learners and non-learners based on the evolution of patient-level indicators during the trial serves as a ‘natural’ control, and can help elucidate the mechanisms of NFB. We present a systematic review motivated by the need to establish the state of the art of patient learning during NFB treatment in current clinical literature. One particularly striking question we would like to answer here is whether existing NFB papers study learning variability, since only individual performance differences can give us information about mechanisms of learning. The results show that very few clinical trial reports have dealt with the heterogeneity of NFB learning, nor analysed whether NFB efficacy is dependent on NFB learning, even though NFB is believed to be a treatment based on learning to perform. In this systematic review we examine not only what has been reported, but also provide a critical analysis of possible flaws or gaps in existing studies, and discuss why no generalized conclusions about NFB efficacy have yet been made. Future research should focus on finding reliable ways of identifying the performers and studying participants’ individual learning trajectories as it might enhance prognosis and the allocation of clinical resources.

@article{cowley_reduced_2022,
	title = {Reduced {Power} in {Fronto}-{Parietal} {Theta} {EEG} {Linked} to {Impaired} {Attention}-{Sampling} in {Adult} {ADHD}},
	volume = {9},
	copyright = {Copyright © 2022 Cowley et al.. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium provided that the original work is properly attributed.},
	issn = {2373-2822},
	url = {https://www.eneuro.org/content/9/1/ENEURO.0028-21.2021},
	doi = {10.1523/ENEURO.0028-21.2021},
	abstract = {Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults is understudied, especially regarding neural mechanisms such as oscillatory control of attention sampling. We report an electroencephalography (EEG) study of such cortical mechanisms, in ADHD-diagnosed adults during administration of Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA), a gold-standard continuous performance test for ADHD that measures the ability to sustain attention and inhibit impulsivity. We recorded 53 adults (28 female, 25 male, aged 18–60), and 18 matched healthy controls, using 128-channel EEG. We analyzed sensor-space features established as neural correlates of attention: timing-sensitivity and phase-synchrony of response activations, and event-related (de)synchronization (ERS/D) of α and θ frequency band activity; in frontal and parietal scalp regions. TOVA test performance significantly distinguished ADHD adults from neurotypical controls, in commission errors, response time variability (RTV) and d′ (response sensitivity). The ADHD group showed significantly weaker target-locked and response-locked amplitudes, that were strongly right-lateralized at the N2 wave, and weaker phase synchrony (longer reset poststimulus). They also manifested significantly less parietal prestimulus 8-Hz θ ERS, less frontal and parietal poststimulus 4-Hz θ ERS, and more frontal and parietal prestimulus α ERS during correct trials. These differences may reflect excessive modulation of endogenous activity by strong entrainment to stimulus (α), combined with deficient modulation by neural entrainment to task (θ), which in TOVA involves monitoring stimulus spatial location (not predicted occurrence onset which is regular and task-irrelevant). Building on the hypotheses of θ coding for relational structure and rhythmic attention sampling, our results suggest that ADHD adults have impaired attention sampling in relational categorization tasks.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2022-01-10},
	journal = {eNeuro},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin Ultan and Juurmaa, Kristiina and Palomäki, Jussi},
	year = {2022},
	pmid = {34893505},
	note = {Publisher: Society for Neuroscience
Section: Research Article: New Research},
	keywords = {ADHD, EEG, TOVA, adult, attention, inhibition, rhythmic attention, sustained attention},
}

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults is understudied, especially regarding neural mechanisms such as oscillatory control of attention sampling. We report an electroencephalography (EEG) study of such cortical mechanisms, in ADHD-diagnosed adults during administration of Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA), a gold-standard continuous performance test for ADHD that measures the ability to sustain attention and inhibit impulsivity. We recorded 53 adults (28 female, 25 male, aged 18–60), and 18 matched healthy controls, using 128-channel EEG. We analyzed sensor-space features established as neural correlates of attention: timing-sensitivity and phase-synchrony of response activations, and event-related (de)synchronization (ERS/D) of α and θ frequency band activity; in frontal and parietal scalp regions. TOVA test performance significantly distinguished ADHD adults from neurotypical controls, in commission errors, response time variability (RTV) and d′ (response sensitivity). The ADHD group showed significantly weaker target-locked and response-locked amplitudes, that were strongly right-lateralized at the N2 wave, and weaker phase synchrony (longer reset poststimulus). They also manifested significantly less parietal prestimulus 8-Hz θ ERS, less frontal and parietal poststimulus 4-Hz θ ERS, and more frontal and parietal prestimulus α ERS during correct trials. These differences may reflect excessive modulation of endogenous activity by strong entrainment to stimulus (α), combined with deficient modulation by neural entrainment to task (θ), which in TOVA involves monitoring stimulus spatial location (not predicted occurrence onset which is regular and task-irrelevant). Building on the hypotheses of θ coding for relational structure and rhythmic attention sampling, our results suggest that ADHD adults have impaired attention sampling in relational categorization tasks.

@incollection{cowley_artificial_2022,
	title = {Artificial {Intelligence} in {Education} as a {Rawlsian} {Massively} {Multiplayer} {Game}: {A} thought experiment on {AI} ethics},
	volume = {in press},
	abstract = {In this chapter, we reflect on the deployment of Artificial Intelligence (AI) as a pedagogical and educational instrument, and the challenges that arise to ensure transparency and fairness to staff and students . We describe a thought experiment: ``simulation of AI in education as a massively multiplayer social online game'' (AIEd-MMOG). Here, all actors (humans, institutions, AI agents and algorithms) are required to conform to the definition of a player. Models of player behaviour that `understand' the game space provide an application-programming interface for typical algorithms, e.g. deep learning neural nets or reinforcement learning agents, to interact with humans and the game space. The definition of `player' is a role designed to maximise protection and benefit for human players during interaction with AI. The concept of benefit maximisation is formally defined as a Rawlsian justice game, played within the AIEd-MMOG to facilitate transparency and trust of the algorithms involved, without requiring algorithm-specific technical solutions to, e.g. `peek inside the black box'. Our thought experiment for an AIEd-MMOG simulation suggests solutions for the well-known challenges of explainable AI and distributive justice.},
	booktitle = {{AI} in {Learning} – {Designing} the future},
	publisher = {Springer Nature},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin Ultan and Charles, Darryl and Pfuhl, Gerit and Rusanen, Anna-Mari},
	year = {2022},
}

In this chapter, we reflect on the deployment of Artificial Intelligence (AI) as a pedagogical and educational instrument, and the challenges that arise to ensure transparency and fairness to staff and students . We describe a thought experiment: ``simulation of AI in education as a massively multiplayer social online game'' (AIEd-MMOG). Here, all actors (humans, institutions, AI agents and algorithms) are required to conform to the definition of a player. Models of player behaviour that `understand' the game space provide an application-programming interface for typical algorithms, e.g. deep learning neural nets or reinforcement learning agents, to interact with humans and the game space. The definition of `player' is a role designed to maximise protection and benefit for human players during interaction with AI. The concept of benefit maximisation is formally defined as a Rawlsian justice game, played within the AIEd-MMOG to facilitate transparency and trust of the algorithms involved, without requiring algorithm-specific technical solutions to, e.g. `peek inside the black box'. Our thought experiment for an AIEd-MMOG simulation suggests solutions for the well-known challenges of explainable AI and distributive justice.

@article{hirvonen_aberrant_2022,
	title = {Aberrant long-range temporal correlations in oscillation dynamics characterize adult {Attention} {Deficit} and {Hyperactivity} {Disorder}},
	volume = {in press},
	abstract = {Background: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by involuntary fluctuations of attention specifically in continuous performance tasks (CPTs), in which attention must be sustained over long period of time. The neuronal basis of aberrant attentional fluctuations in ADHD are poorly understood. Healthy brain activity is characterized by neuronal oscillations that are fundamental for cognition and behavior. Long-range temporal correlations (LRTCs) in the strength of oscillations predict fluctuations and dynamics in behavioral performance in CPTs. 
Methods: We investigated here whether aberrant behavioral fluctuations characteristic to ADHD could originate from aberrant neuronal LRTCs. Brain activity was measured with magnetoencephalography (MEG) from 23 adult participants diagnosed with ADHD, and from 23 healthy controls during rest and during CPTs. 
Results: Adult ADHD was associated with atypical task-dependent modulations of LRTCs of oscillation amplitude fluctuations compared to healthy controls. The aberrant LRCTs originated from frontal and parietal, and sensory cortical areas associated with attentional control. The LRTCs were further correlated with the variability in behavioral LRTCs in CPTs and with the severity of ADHD symptoms. 
Conclusions: These data demonstrate that altered LRTCs in oscillation amplitudes constitute to the aberrant involuntary fluctuations of attention of adults with ADHD.},
	journal = {Biological Psychiatry},
	author = {Hirvonen, Jonni and Simola, Jaana and Morales-Muñoz, Isabel and Cowley, Benjamin Ultan and Palva, J Matias and Palva, Satu},
	year = {2022},
}

Background: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by involuntary fluctuations of attention specifically in continuous performance tasks (CPTs), in which attention must be sustained over long period of time. The neuronal basis of aberrant attentional fluctuations in ADHD are poorly understood. Healthy brain activity is characterized by neuronal oscillations that are fundamental for cognition and behavior. Long-range temporal correlations (LRTCs) in the strength of oscillations predict fluctuations and dynamics in behavioral performance in CPTs. Methods: We investigated here whether aberrant behavioral fluctuations characteristic to ADHD could originate from aberrant neuronal LRTCs. Brain activity was measured with magnetoencephalography (MEG) from 23 adult participants diagnosed with ADHD, and from 23 healthy controls during rest and during CPTs. Results: Adult ADHD was associated with atypical task-dependent modulations of LRTCs of oscillation amplitude fluctuations compared to healthy controls. The aberrant LRCTs originated from frontal and parietal, and sensory cortical areas associated with attentional control. The LRTCs were further correlated with the variability in behavioral LRTCs in CPTs and with the severity of ADHD symptoms. Conclusions: These data demonstrate that altered LRTCs in oscillation amplitudes constitute to the aberrant involuntary fluctuations of attention of adults with ADHD.

@article{wikstrom_inter-brain_2022,
	title = {Inter-brain synchronization occurs without physical co-presence during cooperative online gaming},
	volume = {in press},
	abstract = {Inter-brain synchronization during social interaction has been linked with several positive phenomena, including social closeness, cooperation, prosociality, and team performance. Whether inter-brain synchronization requires physical presence and observing the body of the other person is still unclear. We created an experiment in which physically isolated participants performed a collaborative coordination task in the form of a cooperative multiplayer game. We measured EEG from 42 subjects working together as pairs in the task. During the measurement, the only interaction between the participants happened through on-screen movement of a racing car, controlled by button presses of both participants working with distinct roles, either controlling the speed or the direction of the car. Pairs working together in the task were found to have elevated neural coupling in the alpha, beta, and gamma frequency bands, compared to performance matched false pairs. This result is in line with previous findings of increased inter-brain synchrony during interaction, and shows for the first time that inter-individual neural synchronization occurs during online real-time joint coordination without any physical co-presence or video and audio connection. Furthermore, elevated momentary gamma synchrony was associated with better performance within dyads and elevated mean alpha synchrony was associated with better mean performance across dyads. The novel paradigm, developed for the measurement of real-time performance, demonstrates that changes in synchrony can be observed continuously during interaction.},
	journal = {Neuropsychologia},
	author = {Wikström, Valtteri and Saarikivi, Katri and Falcon, Mari and Makkonen, Tommi and Martikainen, Silja and Putkinen, Vesa and Cowley, Benjamin Ultan and Tervaniemi, Mari},
	year = {2022},
}

Inter-brain synchronization during social interaction has been linked with several positive phenomena, including social closeness, cooperation, prosociality, and team performance. Whether inter-brain synchronization requires physical presence and observing the body of the other person is still unclear. We created an experiment in which physically isolated participants performed a collaborative coordination task in the form of a cooperative multiplayer game. We measured EEG from 42 subjects working together as pairs in the task. During the measurement, the only interaction between the participants happened through on-screen movement of a racing car, controlled by button presses of both participants working with distinct roles, either controlling the speed or the direction of the car. Pairs working together in the task were found to have elevated neural coupling in the alpha, beta, and gamma frequency bands, compared to performance matched false pairs. This result is in line with previous findings of increased inter-brain synchrony during interaction, and shows for the first time that inter-individual neural synchronization occurs during online real-time joint coordination without any physical co-presence or video and audio connection. Furthermore, elevated momentary gamma synchrony was associated with better performance within dyads and elevated mean alpha synchrony was associated with better mean performance across dyads. The novel paradigm, developed for the measurement of real-time performance, demonstrates that changes in synchrony can be observed continuously during interaction.

@inproceedings{cowley_seeking_2022,
	address = {Pittsburgh, USA},
	title = {Seeking {Flow} from {Fine}-{Grained} {Log} {Data}},
	abstract = {Flow is the experience of deep absorption in a demanding, intrinsically-motivating task conducted with skill. We consider how to measure behavioural correlates of flow from fine-grained process data extracted from programming environments. Specifically, we propose measuring affective factors related to flow non-intrusively based on log data. Presently, such affective factors are typically measured intrusively (by self-report), which naturally will break the flow. We evaluate our approach in a pilot study, where we use log data and survey data collected from an introductory programming course. The log data is fine-grained, containing timestamped actions at the keystroke level from the process of solving programming assignments, while the survey data has been collected at the end of every completed assignment. The survey data in the pilot study comprises of Likert-like items measuring perceived educational value, perceived difficulty, and students' self-reported focus when solving the assignments. We study raw and derived log data metrics, by looking for relationships between the metrics and the survey data. We discuss the results of the pilot study and provide suggestions for future work related to non-intrusive measures of programmer affect.},
	booktitle = {44th {International} {Conference} on {Software} {Engineering}},
	publisher = {ACM},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin and Hellas, Arto and Ihantola, Petri and Leinonen, Juho and Spape, Michiel},
	month = may,
	year = {2022},
}

Flow is the experience of deep absorption in a demanding, intrinsically-motivating task conducted with skill. We consider how to measure behavioural correlates of flow from fine-grained process data extracted from programming environments. Specifically, we propose measuring affective factors related to flow non-intrusively based on log data. Presently, such affective factors are typically measured intrusively (by self-report), which naturally will break the flow. We evaluate our approach in a pilot study, where we use log data and survey data collected from an introductory programming course. The log data is fine-grained, containing timestamped actions at the keystroke level from the process of solving programming assignments, while the survey data has been collected at the end of every completed assignment. The survey data in the pilot study comprises of Likert-like items measuring perceived educational value, perceived difficulty, and students' self-reported focus when solving the assignments. We study raw and derived log data metrics, by looking for relationships between the metrics and the survey data. We discuss the results of the pilot study and provide suggestions for future work related to non-intrusive measures of programmer affect.

@article{tervaniemi_improved_2021,
	title = {Improved {Auditory} {Function} {Caused} by {Music} {Versus} {Foreign} {Language} {Training} at {School} {Age}: {Is} {There} a {Difference}?},
	volume = {32},
	issn = {1460-2199},
	shorttitle = {Improved {Auditory} {Function} {Caused} by {Music} {Versus} {Foreign} {Language} {Training} at {School} {Age}},
	doi = {10.1093/cercor/bhab194},
	abstract = {In adults, music and speech share many neurocognitive functions, but how do they interact in a developing brain? We compared the effects of music and foreign language training on auditory neurocognition in Chinese children aged 8-11 years. We delivered group-based training programs in music and foreign language using a randomized controlled trial. A passive control group was also included. Before and after these year-long extracurricular programs, auditory event-related potentials were recorded (n = 123 and 85 before and after the program, respectively). Through these recordings, we probed early auditory predictive brain processes. To our surprise, the language program facilitated the children's early auditory predictive brain processes significantly more than did the music program. This facilitation was most evident in pitch encoding when the experimental paradigm was musically relevant. When these processes were probed by a paradigm more focused on basic sound features, we found early predictive pitch encoding to be facilitated by music training. Thus, a foreign language program is able to foster auditory and music neurocognition, at least in tonal language speakers, in a manner comparable to that by a music program. Our results support the tight coupling of musical and linguistic brain functions also in the developing brain.},
	language = {eng},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Cerebral Cortex (New York, N.Y.: 1991)},
	author = {Tervaniemi, Mari and Putkinen, Vesa and Nie, Peixin and Wang, Cuicui and Du, Bin and Lu, Jing and Li, Shuting and Cowley, Benjamin Ultan and Tammi, Tuisku and Tao, Sha},
	month = nov,
	year = {2021},
	pmid = {34265850},
	pmcid = {PMC8634570},
	keywords = {515 Psychology, 516 Educational sciences, 6131 Theatre, brain development, dance, language, learning, music, other performing arts, transfer},
	pages = {63--75},
}

In adults, music and speech share many neurocognitive functions, but how do they interact in a developing brain? We compared the effects of music and foreign language training on auditory neurocognition in Chinese children aged 8-11 years. We delivered group-based training programs in music and foreign language using a randomized controlled trial. A passive control group was also included. Before and after these year-long extracurricular programs, auditory event-related potentials were recorded (n = 123 and 85 before and after the program, respectively). Through these recordings, we probed early auditory predictive brain processes. To our surprise, the language program facilitated the children's early auditory predictive brain processes significantly more than did the music program. This facilitation was most evident in pitch encoding when the experimental paradigm was musically relevant. When these processes were probed by a paradigm more focused on basic sound features, we found early predictive pitch encoding to be facilitated by music training. Thus, a foreign language program is able to foster auditory and music neurocognition, at least in tonal language speakers, in a manner comparable to that by a music program. Our results support the tight coupling of musical and linguistic brain functions also in the developing brain.

@article{jarvela_augmented_2021,
	title = {Augmented {Virtual} {Reality} {Meditation}: {Shared} {Dyadic} {Biofeedback} {Increases} {Social} {Presence} {Via} {Respiratory} {Synchrony}},
	volume = {4},
	issn = {2469-7818},
	doi = {10.1145/3449358},
	language = {English},
	number = {2},
	journal = {ACM Transactions on Social Computing},
	author = {Järvelä, Simo and Cowley, Benjamin Ultan and Salminen, Mikko and Jacucci, Giulio and Hamari, Juho and Ravaja, Niklas},
	month = mar,
	year = {2021},
	note = {Publisher: ACM},
	keywords = {113 Computer and information sciences},
}

@article{veilahti_neurofeedback_2021,
	title = {Neurofeedback {Learning} is {Skill} {Acquisition} but does not {Guarantee} {Treatment} {Benefit}: {Continuous}-{Time} {Analysis} of {Learning}-{Curves} from a {Clinical} {Trial} for {ADHD}},
	volume = {15},
	issn = {1662-5161},
	shorttitle = {Neurofeedback {Learning} is {Skill} {Acquisition} but does not {Guarantee} {Treatment} {Benefit}},
	url = {https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2021.668780/full},
	doi = {10.3389/fnhum.2021.668780},
	abstract = {Neurofeedback for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has long been studied as an alternative to medication, promising non-invasive treatment with minimal side-effects and sustained outcome. However, debate continues over the efficacy of neurofeedback, partly because existing evidence for efficacy is mixed and often non-specific, with unclear relationships between prognostic variables, patient performance when learning to self-regulate, and treatment outcomes. We report an extensive analysis on the understudied area of neurofeedback learning. Our data comes from a randomised controlled clinical trial in adults with ADHD (registered trial ISRCTN13915109; N=23; 13:10 female:male; age 25-57). Patients were treated with either theta-beta ratio or sensorimotor-rhythm regimes for 40 one-hour sessions. We classify 11 learners vs 12 non-learners by the significance of random slopes in a linear mixed growth-curve model. We then analyse the predictors, outcomes, and processes of learners vs non-learners, using these groups as mutual controls. Significant predictive relationships were found in anxiety disorder (GAD), dissociative experience (DES), and behavioural inhibition (BIS) scores obtained during screening. Low DES, but high GAD and BIS, predicted positive learning. Patterns of behavioural outcomes from Test Of Variables of Attention, and symptoms from adult ADHD Self-Report Scale, suggested that learning itself is not required for positive outcomes. Finally, the learning process was analysed using structural-equations modelling with continuous-time data, estimating the short-term and sustained impact of each session on learning. A key finding is that our results support the conceptualisation of neurofeedback learning as skill acquisition, and not merely operant conditioning as originally proposed in the literature.},
	language = {English},
	urldate = {2021-06-15},
	journal = {Frontiers in Human Neuroscience},
	author = {Veilahti, Antti and Kovarskis, Levas and Cowley, Benjamin Ultan},
	year = {2021},
	note = {Publisher: Frontiers},
	keywords = {515 Psychology, 516 Educational sciences, 6162 Cognitive science, ADHD, ADULT ADHD, BIOFEEDBACK, CHILDREN, Classification, DISORDER, EEG, Learning, Neurofeedback, SYMPTOMS, THERAPY, adult ADHD, classification, clinical  trial, clinical trial, continuous-time modelling, learning, neurofeedback},
}

Neurofeedback for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has long been studied as an alternative to medication, promising non-invasive treatment with minimal side-effects and sustained outcome. However, debate continues over the efficacy of neurofeedback, partly because existing evidence for efficacy is mixed and often non-specific, with unclear relationships between prognostic variables, patient performance when learning to self-regulate, and treatment outcomes. We report an extensive analysis on the understudied area of neurofeedback learning. Our data comes from a randomised controlled clinical trial in adults with ADHD (registered trial ISRCTN13915109; N=23; 13:10 female:male; age 25-57). Patients were treated with either theta-beta ratio or sensorimotor-rhythm regimes for 40 one-hour sessions. We classify 11 learners vs 12 non-learners by the significance of random slopes in a linear mixed growth-curve model. We then analyse the predictors, outcomes, and processes of learners vs non-learners, using these groups as mutual controls. Significant predictive relationships were found in anxiety disorder (GAD), dissociative experience (DES), and behavioural inhibition (BIS) scores obtained during screening. Low DES, but high GAD and BIS, predicted positive learning. Patterns of behavioural outcomes from Test Of Variables of Attention, and symptoms from adult ADHD Self-Report Scale, suggested that learning itself is not required for positive outcomes. Finally, the learning process was analysed using structural-equations modelling with continuous-time data, estimating the short-term and sustained impact of each session on learning. A key finding is that our results support the conceptualisation of neurofeedback learning as skill acquisition, and not merely operant conditioning as originally proposed in the literature.

@article{palomaki_link_2021,
	title = {The link between flow and performance is moderated by task experience},
	volume = {124},
	issn = {0747-5632},
	url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563221002144},
	doi = {10.1016/j.chb.2021.106891},
	abstract = {Flow is an intrinsically motivating (i.e. ‘autotelic’) psychological state of complete absorption in moment-to-moment activity that can occur when one performs a task whose demands match one's skill-level. Flow theory proposes that Flow causally leads to better performance, but empirical evidence for this assumption is mixed. Recent evidence suggests that self-reported Flow may not be linked to performance-levels per se, but instead to deviations from anticipated performance (the so-called flow deviation, or F{\textasciitilde}d effect). We aimed to replicate and extend these results by employing a high-speed steering game (CogCarSim) to elicit Flow, and specifically focused on the moderating effects of learning and task experience on the F{\textasciitilde}d effect. In a longitudinal design, 18 participants each played CogCarSim for 40 trials across eight sessions, totaling 720 measurements across participants. CogCarSim reliably elicited Flow, and learning to play the game fit well to a power-law model. We successfully replicated the F{\textasciitilde}d effect: self-reported Flow was much more strongly associated with deviation-from-expected performance than with objective performance levels. We also found that the F{\textasciitilde}d effect grew stronger with increasing task experience, thus demonstrating an effect of learning on Flow. We discuss the implications of our findings for contemporary theories of Flow.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-10-14},
	journal = {Computers in Human Behavior},
	author = {Palomäki, Jussi and Tammi, Tuisku and Lehtonen, Noora and Seittenranta, Niina and Laakasuo, Michael and Abuhamdeh, Sami and Lappi, Otto and Cowley, Benjamin Ultan},
	month = nov,
	year = {2021},
	keywords = {515 Psychology, 6162 Cognitive science, Experience, Flow, Game, Learning, Performance},
	pages = {106891},
}

Flow is an intrinsically motivating (i.e. ‘autotelic’) psychological state of complete absorption in moment-to-moment activity that can occur when one performs a task whose demands match one's skill-level. Flow theory proposes that Flow causally leads to better performance, but empirical evidence for this assumption is mixed. Recent evidence suggests that self-reported Flow may not be linked to performance-levels per se, but instead to deviations from anticipated performance (the so-called flow deviation, or F~d effect). We aimed to replicate and extend these results by employing a high-speed steering game (CogCarSim) to elicit Flow, and specifically focused on the moderating effects of learning and task experience on the F~d effect. In a longitudinal design, 18 participants each played CogCarSim for 40 trials across eight sessions, totaling 720 measurements across participants. CogCarSim reliably elicited Flow, and learning to play the game fit well to a power-law model. We successfully replicated the F~d effect: self-reported Flow was much more strongly associated with deviation-from-expected performance than with objective performance levels. We also found that the F~d effect grew stronger with increasing task experience, thus demonstrating an effect of learning on Flow. We discuss the implications of our findings for contemporary theories of Flow.

@article{martinez-molina_resting-state_2021,
	title = {Resting-{State} {Network} {Plasticity} {Induced} by {Music} {Therapy} after {Traumatic} {Brain} {Injury}},
	volume = {2021},
	issn = {2090-5904},
	url = {https://www.hindawi.com/journals/np/2021/6682471/},
	doi = {10.1155/2021/6682471},
	abstract = {Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is characterized by a complex pattern of abnormalities in resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) and network dysfunction, which can potentially be ameliorated by rehabilitation. In our previous randomized controlled trial, we found that a 3-month neurological music therapy intervention enhanced executive function (EF) and increased grey matter volume in the right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) in patients with moderate-to-severe TBI (). Extending this study, we performed longitudinal rsFC analyses of resting-state fMRI data using a ROI-to-ROI approach assessing within-network and between-network rsFC in the frontoparietal (FPN), dorsal attention (DAN), default mode (DMN), and salience (SAL) networks, which all have been associated with cognitive impairment after TBI. We also performed a seed-based connectivity analysis between the right IFG and whole-brain rsFC. The results showed that neurological music therapy increased the coupling between the FPN and DAN as well as between these networks and primary sensory networks. By contrast, the DMN was less connected with sensory networks after the intervention. Similarly, there was a shift towards a less connected state within the FPN and SAL networks, which are typically hyperconnected following TBI. Improvements in EF were correlated with rsFC within the FPN and between the DMN and sensorimotor networks. Finally, in the seed-based connectivity analysis, the right IFG showed increased rsFC with the right inferior parietal and left frontoparietal (Rolandic operculum) regions. Together, these results indicate that the rehabilitative effects of neurological music therapy after TBI are underpinned by a pattern of within- and between-network connectivity changes in cognitive networks as well as increased connectivity between frontal and parietal regions associated with music processing.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-05-12},
	journal = {Neural Plasticity},
	author = {Martínez-Molina, Noelia and Siponkoski, Sini-Tuuli and Kuusela, Linda and Laitinen, Sari and Holma, Milla and Ahlfors, Mirja and Jordan-Kilkki, Päivi and Ala-Kauhaluoma, Katja and Melkas, Susanna and Pekkola, Johanna and Rodríguez-Fornells, Antoni and Laine, Matti and Ylinen, Aarne and Rantanen, Pekka and Koskinen, Sanna and Cowley, Benjamin Ultan and Särkämö, Teppo},
	month = mar,
	year = {2021},
	note = {Publisher: Hindawi},
	keywords = {3112 Neurosciences, 3124 Neurology and psychiatry, 515 Psychology},
	pages = {e6682471},
}

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is characterized by a complex pattern of abnormalities in resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) and network dysfunction, which can potentially be ameliorated by rehabilitation. In our previous randomized controlled trial, we found that a 3-month neurological music therapy intervention enhanced executive function (EF) and increased grey matter volume in the right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) in patients with moderate-to-severe TBI (). Extending this study, we performed longitudinal rsFC analyses of resting-state fMRI data using a ROI-to-ROI approach assessing within-network and between-network rsFC in the frontoparietal (FPN), dorsal attention (DAN), default mode (DMN), and salience (SAL) networks, which all have been associated with cognitive impairment after TBI. We also performed a seed-based connectivity analysis between the right IFG and whole-brain rsFC. The results showed that neurological music therapy increased the coupling between the FPN and DAN as well as between these networks and primary sensory networks. By contrast, the DMN was less connected with sensory networks after the intervention. Similarly, there was a shift towards a less connected state within the FPN and SAL networks, which are typically hyperconnected following TBI. Improvements in EF were correlated with rsFC within the FPN and between the DMN and sensorimotor networks. Finally, in the seed-based connectivity analysis, the right IFG showed increased rsFC with the right inferior parietal and left frontoparietal (Rolandic operculum) regions. Together, these results indicate that the rehabilitative effects of neurological music therapy after TBI are underpinned by a pattern of within- and between-network connectivity changes in cognitive networks as well as increased connectivity between frontal and parietal regions associated with music processing.

@article{palomaki_poker_2020,
	title = {Poker as a {Domain} of {Expertise}},
	volume = {3},
	copyright = {All rights reserved},
	issn = {2573-2773},
	abstract = {Poker is a game of skill and chance involving economic decision-making under uncertainty. It is also a complex but well-defined real-world environment with a clear rule-structure. As such, poker has strong potential as a model system for studying high-stakes, high-risk expert performance. Poker has been increasingly used as a tool to study decision-making and learning, as well as emotion self-regulation. In this review, we discuss how these studies have begun to inform us about the interaction between emotions and technical skill, and how expertise develops and depends on these two factors. Expertise in poker critically requires both mastery of the technical aspects of the game, and proficiency in emotion regulation; poker thus offers a good environment for studying these skills in controlled experimental settings of high external validity.We conclude by suggesting ideas for future research on expertise, with new insights provided by poker.},
	language = {English},
	number = {2},
	journal = {Journal of expertise},
	author = {Palomäki, Jussi and Laakasuo, Michael and Cowley, Benjamin Ultan and Lappi, Otto},
	year = {2020},
	keywords = {6162 Cognitive science},
	pages = {66--87},
}

Poker is a game of skill and chance involving economic decision-making under uncertainty. It is also a complex but well-defined real-world environment with a clear rule-structure. As such, poker has strong potential as a model system for studying high-stakes, high-risk expert performance. Poker has been increasingly used as a tool to study decision-making and learning, as well as emotion self-regulation. In this review, we discuss how these studies have begun to inform us about the interaction between emotions and technical skill, and how expertise develops and depends on these two factors. Expertise in poker critically requires both mastery of the technical aspects of the game, and proficiency in emotion regulation; poker thus offers a good environment for studying these skills in controlled experimental settings of high external validity.We conclude by suggesting ideas for future research on expertise, with new insights provided by poker.

@article{cowley_strength_2020,
	title = {Strength of attention-sampling parietal {EEG} theta rhythm is linked to impaired inhibition in adult {ADHD}},
	doi = {10.1101/2020.06.03.20120964},
	abstract = {Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults is understudied, especially regarding neural mechanisms such as oscillatory control of attention sampling. We report an EEG study of such cortical oscillations, in ADHD-diagnosed adults taking a continuous performance test that measures the ability to sustain attention and inhibit impulsivity for a prolonged period of time.We recorded 53 adults (28f, 25m, aged 18-60), and 18 matched healthy controls, using 128-channel EEG. We analysed features with established links to neural correlates of attention: event-related (de)synchronisation (ERS/D), alpha and theta frequency band activation, phase-locking value (PLV), and timing-sensitivity indices; in frontal and parietal scalp regions.Test performance distinguished healthy controls from ADHD adults. The ADHD group manifested significantly less parietal pre-stimulus 8Hz theta ERS during correct inhibition trials, less frontal amp; parietal post-stimulus 4Hz theta ERS during inhibition amp; response trials, and increased frontal amp; parietal pre-stimulus alpha ERS during inhibition amp; response. They showed significantly reduced fronto-parietal connectivity that lagged across trials and was strongly lateralised. In addition, they had reduced sensitivity to targets in stimulus-locking measures.Building on the hypothesis of parietal attention sampling, our results suggest that ADHD adults have impaired attention sampling in relational categorisation tasks.Competing Interest StatementThe authors have declared no competing interest.Funding StatementPartly funded by Finnish science agency TEKES, project \$\$440078. No payment, or services from a third party, were received for any aspect of the submitted work.Author DeclarationsI confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.YesThe details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:The Ethical Committee of the Hospital District of Helsinki and Uusimaa, 28/03/2012, 621/1999, 24All necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived.YesI understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).YesI have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines and uploaded the relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material as supplementary files, if applicable.YesParticipants did not explicitly consent to the release of the data recorded in the study, and thus datasets are not made publicly available.},
	language = {English},
	journal = {medRxiv},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin Ultan and Juurmaa, Kristiina and Palomäki, Jussi},
	year = {2020},
	note = {Publisher: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press},
	keywords = {3124 Neurology and psychiatry},
}

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults is understudied, especially regarding neural mechanisms such as oscillatory control of attention sampling. We report an EEG study of such cortical oscillations, in ADHD-diagnosed adults taking a continuous performance test that measures the ability to sustain attention and inhibit impulsivity for a prolonged period of time.We recorded 53 adults (28f, 25m, aged 18-60), and 18 matched healthy controls, using 128-channel EEG. We analysed features with established links to neural correlates of attention: event-related (de)synchronisation (ERS/D), alpha and theta frequency band activation, phase-locking value (PLV), and timing-sensitivity indices; in frontal and parietal scalp regions.Test performance distinguished healthy controls from ADHD adults. The ADHD group manifested significantly less parietal pre-stimulus 8Hz theta ERS during correct inhibition trials, less frontal amp; parietal post-stimulus 4Hz theta ERS during inhibition amp; response trials, and increased frontal amp; parietal pre-stimulus alpha ERS during inhibition amp; response. They showed significantly reduced fronto-parietal connectivity that lagged across trials and was strongly lateralised. In addition, they had reduced sensitivity to targets in stimulus-locking measures.Building on the hypothesis of parietal attention sampling, our results suggest that ADHD adults have impaired attention sampling in relational categorisation tasks.Competing Interest StatementThe authors have declared no competing interest.Funding StatementPartly funded by Finnish science agency TEKES, project $$440078. No payment, or services from a third party, were received for any aspect of the submitted work.Author DeclarationsI confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.YesThe details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:The Ethical Committee of the Hospital District of Helsinki and Uusimaa, 28/03/2012, 621/1999, 24All necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived.YesI understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).YesI have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines and uploaded the relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material as supplementary files, if applicable.YesParticipants did not explicitly consent to the release of the data recorded in the study, and thus datasets are not made publicly available.

@article{cowley_editorial_2020,
	title = {Editorial: {High} {Performance} {Cognition}: {Information}-{Processing} in {Complex} {Skills}, {Expert} {Performance}, and {Flow}},
	volume = {11},
	issn = {1664-1078},
	shorttitle = {Editorial},
	url = {https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.579950/full},
	doi = {10.3389/fpsyg.2020.579950},
	abstract = {Editorial: High Performance Cognition: Information-Processing in Complex Skills, Expert Performance, and Flow},
	language = {English},
	urldate = {2020-10-09},
	journal = {Frontiers in Psychology},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin Ultan and Dehais, Frederic and Fairclough, Stephen and Karran, Alexander John and Palomäki, Jussi and Lappi, Otto},
	year = {2020},
	keywords = {515 Psychology, Cognitive fitness, Cognitive neuroscience, DELIBERATE PRACTICE, Flow, Psychophysiology, expert performance, high performance cognition},
}

Editorial: High Performance Cognition: Information-Processing in Complex Skills, Expert Performance, and Flow

@inproceedings{cowley_generalised_2020,
	title = {Generalised {Player} {Modelling}: {Why} {Artificial} {Intelligence} in {Games} {Should} {Incorporate} {Meaning}, with a {Formalism} for so {Doing}},
	volume = {12211},
	copyright = {All rights reserved},
	isbn = {978-3-030-50164-8},
	abstract = {General game-playing artificial intelligence (AI) has recently seen important advances due to the various techniques known as ‘deep learning’. However, in terms of human-computer interaction, the advances conceal a major limitation: these algorithms do not incorporate any sense of what human players find meaningful in games.I argue that adaptive game AI will be enhanced by a generalised player model, because games are inherently human artefacts which require some encoding of the human perspective in order to respond naturally to individual players. The player model provides constraints on the adaptive AI, which allow it to encode aspects of what human players find meaningful. I propose that a general player model requires parameters for the subjective experience of play, including: player psychology, game structure, and actions of play. I argue that such a player model would enhance efficiency of per-game solutions, and also support study of game-playing by allowing (within-player) comparison between games, or (within-game) comparison between players (human and AI).Here we detail requirements for functional adaptive AI, arguing from first-principles drawn from games research literature, and propose a formal specification for a generalised player model based on our ‘Behavlets’ method for psychologically-derived player modelling.},
	language = {English},
	booktitle = {International {Conference} on {Human}-{Computer} {Interaction} {HCII} 2020: {HCI} in {Games}},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin Ultan},
	year = {2020},
	keywords = {113 Computer and information sciences, 515 Psychology, 6162 Cognitive science},
	pages = {3--22},
}

General game-playing artificial intelligence (AI) has recently seen important advances due to the various techniques known as ‘deep learning’. However, in terms of human-computer interaction, the advances conceal a major limitation: these algorithms do not incorporate any sense of what human players find meaningful in games.I argue that adaptive game AI will be enhanced by a generalised player model, because games are inherently human artefacts which require some encoding of the human perspective in order to respond naturally to individual players. The player model provides constraints on the adaptive AI, which allow it to encode aspects of what human players find meaningful. I propose that a general player model requires parameters for the subjective experience of play, including: player psychology, game structure, and actions of play. I argue that such a player model would enhance efficiency of per-game solutions, and also support study of game-playing by allowing (within-player) comparison between games, or (within-game) comparison between players (human and AI).Here we detail requirements for functional adaptive AI, arguing from first-principles drawn from games research literature, and propose a formal specification for a generalised player model based on our ‘Behavlets’ method for psychologically-derived player modelling.

@inproceedings{charles_behavlet_2020,
	address = {Cham},
	title = {Behavlet {Analytics} for {Player} {Profiling} and {Churn} {Prediction}},
	isbn = {978-3-030-60128-7},
	abstract = {Players exhibit varying behaviour from each other when playing games. Indeed, a player's own behaviour will change as they learn to play and changing behaviour may also be indicative of when they are prematurely about to quit playing permanently (known as `churn'). There can be many reasons for player churn including finding a game too easy, too hard, or just not understanding what they must do. The accurate prediction of player churn is important as it allows a publisher or developer to understand and intervene to improve retention and thus increase revenue. Profiling player behaviours through their actions in-game can facilitate personalization, by adapting gameplay for different types of player to enhance player enjoyment and reduce churn rate. Behavlets are data-features that encode short activity sequences (`atoms' of play), which represent an aspect of playing style or player personality traits, e.g. aggressiveness or cautiousness tendencies. Previously we have shown how Behavlets can be used to model variation between players. In this paper, we focus on Behavlet sequences and how process mining and entropy-based analysis can profile evolving behaviour, predict player churn, and adapt play to potentially increase enjoyment.},
	booktitle = {{HCI} {International} 2020 – {Late} {Breaking} {Papers}: {Cognition}, {Learning} and {Games}},
	publisher = {Springer International Publishing},
	author = {Charles, Darryl and Cowley, Benjamin Ultan},
	editor = {Stephanidis, Constantine and Harris, Don and Li, Wen-Chin and Schmorrow, Dylan D. and Fidopiastis, Cali M. and Zaphiris, Panayiotis and Ioannou, Andri and Fang, Xiaowen and Sottilare, Robert A. and Schwarz, Jessica},
	year = {2020},
	keywords = {6162 Cognitive science},
	pages = {631--643},
}

Players exhibit varying behaviour from each other when playing games. Indeed, a player's own behaviour will change as they learn to play and changing behaviour may also be indicative of when they are prematurely about to quit playing permanently (known as `churn'). There can be many reasons for player churn including finding a game too easy, too hard, or just not understanding what they must do. The accurate prediction of player churn is important as it allows a publisher or developer to understand and intervene to improve retention and thus increase revenue. Profiling player behaviours through their actions in-game can facilitate personalization, by adapting gameplay for different types of player to enhance player enjoyment and reduce churn rate. Behavlets are data-features that encode short activity sequences (`atoms' of play), which represent an aspect of playing style or player personality traits, e.g. aggressiveness or cautiousness tendencies. Previously we have shown how Behavlets can be used to model variation between players. In this paper, we focus on Behavlet sequences and how process mining and entropy-based analysis can profile evolving behaviour, predict player churn, and adapt play to potentially increase enjoyment.

@inproceedings{tammi_temporal_2019,
	address = {Berlin, Germany},
	title = {Temporal {Pattern} {Models} for {Physiological} {Arousal} {During} a {Steering} {Task}},
	copyright = {All rights reserved},
	url = {https://ccneuro.org/2019/Papers/ViewPapers.asp?PaperNum=1249},
	doi = {10.32470/CCN.2019.1249-0},
	urldate = {2019-09-04},
	booktitle = {2019 {Conference} on {Cognitive} {Computational} {Neuroscience}},
	publisher = {Cognitive Computational Neuroscience},
	author = {Tammi, Tuisku and Lehtonen, Noora and Cowley, Benjamin Ultan},
	year = {2019},
	keywords = {6162 Cognitive science, electrodermal activity, habituation, high performance cognition, skill acquisition, steering, visuomotor performance},
}

@article{cowley_flow_2019,
	title = {Flow {Experiences} {During} {Visuomotor} {Skill} {Acquisition} {Reflect} {Deviation} {From} a {Power}-{Law} {Learning} {Curve}, but {Not} {Overall} {Level} of {Skill}},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1664-1078},
	url = {https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01126/full#note2},
	doi = {10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01126},
	abstract = {Flow is a state of `optimal experience' that arises when skill and task demands match. Flow has been well studied in psychology using a range of self-report and experimental methods; with most research typically focusing on how Flow is elicited by a particular task. Here, we focus on how the experience of Flow changes during task skill development. We present a longitudinal experimental study of learning, wherein participants (N = 9) play a novel steering-game task designed to elicit Flow by matching skill and demand, and providing clear goals and feedback. Experimental design involves extensive in-depth measurement of behaviour, physiology, and Flow self-reports over two weeks of 40 game trials in eight sessions. Here we report behavioural results, which are both strikingly similar and strong within each participant. We find that the game induces a near-constant state of elevated Flow. We further find that the variation in Flow across all trials is less affected by overall performance improvement than by deviation of performance from the expected value predicted by a power law model of learning.},
	language = {English},
	urldate = {2019-09-15},
	journal = {Frontiers in Psychology},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin Ultan and Palomäki, Jussi and Tammi, Tuisku and Frantsi, Roosa and Inkilä, Ville-Pekka and Lehtonen, Noora and Pölönen, Pasi and Vepsäläinen, Juha and Lappi, Otto},
	year = {2019},
	keywords = {6162 Cognitive science, Flow, Flow model, Power law of practice, Visuomotor performance, high performance cognition, power law of practice, skill acquisition, steering, visuomotor performance},
}

Flow is a state of `optimal experience' that arises when skill and task demands match. Flow has been well studied in psychology using a range of self-report and experimental methods; with most research typically focusing on how Flow is elicited by a particular task. Here, we focus on how the experience of Flow changes during task skill development. We present a longitudinal experimental study of learning, wherein participants (N = 9) play a novel steering-game task designed to elicit Flow by matching skill and demand, and providing clear goals and feedback. Experimental design involves extensive in-depth measurement of behaviour, physiology, and Flow self-reports over two weeks of 40 game trials in eight sessions. Here we report behavioural results, which are both strikingly similar and strong within each participant. We find that the game induces a near-constant state of elevated Flow. We further find that the variation in Flow across all trials is less affected by overall performance improvement than by deviation of performance from the expected value predicted by a power law model of learning.

@article{cowley_global_2018,
	title = {Global learning, local {Flow}: subjective {Flow} report responds to proximal performance reference-level in a longitudinally-measured game-like task},
	volume = {8ryue},
	shorttitle = {Global learning, local {Flow}},
	doi = {10.31234/osf.io/8ryue},
	abstract = {Flow is a state of `optimal experience' that arises when skill and task demands match. Flow has been well studied in psychology using a range of self-report and experimental methods; with most research typically focusing on how Flow is elicited by a particular task. Here, we focus on how the experience of Flow changes during task skill development. We present a longitudinal experiment of learning to play a bespoke steering-game task designed to elicit Flow by matching skill and demand, and providing clear goals and feedback. We measure Flow self-reports over 40 game trials in eight sessions, and find the game induces a near constant state of elevated Flow. We further find that the variation in Flow across all trials is less affected by overall performance improvement than by deviation of performance from the expected value predicted by a power law model of learning. Finally, concurrent measurement of physiology shows that spontaneous blink rate, a putative index of striatal dopamine, relates to the individual rate of learning, and that this relationship is moderated by Flow.},
	journal = {PsyArXiv preprints},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin and Palomäki, Jussi and Tammi, Tuisku and Frantsi, Roosa and Inkilä, Ville-Pekka and Lehtonen, Noora and Pölönen, Pasi and Vepsäläinen, Juha and Lappi, Otto},
	month = nov,
	year = {2018},
	doi = {10.31234/osf.io/8ryue},
}

Flow is a state of `optimal experience' that arises when skill and task demands match. Flow has been well studied in psychology using a range of self-report and experimental methods; with most research typically focusing on how Flow is elicited by a particular task. Here, we focus on how the experience of Flow changes during task skill development. We present a longitudinal experiment of learning to play a bespoke steering-game task designed to elicit Flow by matching skill and demand, and providing clear goals and feedback. We measure Flow self-reports over 40 game trials in eight sessions, and find the game induces a near constant state of elevated Flow. We further find that the variation in Flow across all trials is less affected by overall performance improvement than by deviation of performance from the expected value predicted by a power law model of learning. Finally, concurrent measurement of physiology shows that spontaneous blink rate, a putative index of striatal dopamine, relates to the individual rate of learning, and that this relationship is moderated by Flow.

@article{cowley_studying_2018,
	title = {Studying the integrated functional cognitive basis of sustained attention with a {Primed} {Subjective}-{Illusory}-{Contour} {Attention} {Task}},
	volume = {8},
	journal = {Scientific reports},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin Ultan},
	year = {2018},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	keywords = {515 Psychology, 6162 Cognitive science, A1, Attention, COMPLETION, CORTICAL ACTIVITY, Cognitive control, EEG, GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY, ILLUSIONS, INDEPENDENT COMPONENT ANALYSIS, Journal, ORGANIZATION, OSCILLATIONS, PERFORMANCE, Psychology, VISUAL-PERCEPTION, peer reviewed},
}

@article{cowley_computational_2018,
	title = {Computational {Testing} for {Automated} {Preprocessing} 2: practical demonstration of a system for scientific data-processing workflow management for high-volume {EEG}},
	volume = {12},
	journal = {Frontiers in neuroscience},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin U and Korpela, Jussi},
	year = {2018},
	note = {Publisher: Frontiers},
	keywords = {213 Electronic, 515 Psychology, A1, EEG, EEGLAB, FEATURES, IF{\textbackslash}textgreater1, Journal, PIPELINE, automated preprocessing, automation and communications engineering, computational testing, electroencephalography, electronics, parameter sweep, peer reviewed, scientific workflow system, workflow management},
	pages = {236},
}

@article{ahonen_biosignals_2018,
	title = {Biosignals reflect pair-dynamics in collaborative work: {EDA} and {ECG} study of pair-programming in a classroom environment},
	volume = {8},
	doi = {10.1038/s41598-018-21518-3},
	abstract = {Collaboration is a complex phenomenon, where intersubjective dynamics can greatly affect the productive outcome. Evaluation of collaboration is thus of great interest, and can potentially help achieve better outcomes and performance. However, quantitative measurement of collaboration is difficult, because much of the interaction occurs in the intersubjective space between collaborators. Manual observation and/or self-reports are subjective, laborious, and have a poor temporal resolution. The problem is compounded in natural settings where task-activity and response-compliance cannot be controlled. Physiological signals provide an objective mean to quantify intersubjective rapport (as synchrony), but require novel methods to support broad deployment outside the lab. We studied 28 student dyads during a self-directed classroom pair-programming exercise. Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system activation was measured during task performance using electrodermal activity and electrocardiography. Results suggest that (a) we can isolate cognitive processes (mental workload) from confounding environmental effects, and (b) electrodermal signals show role-specific but correlated affective response profiles. We demonstrate the potential for social physiological compliance to quantify pair-work in natural settings, with no experimental manipulation of participants required. Our objective approach has a high temporal resolution, is scalable, non-intrusive, and robust.},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Nature Scientific Reports},
	author = {Ahonen, Lauri and Cowley, Benjamin Ultan and Hellas, Arto and Puolamäki, Kai},
	year = {2018},
	keywords = {217 Medical engineering, 5144 Social psychology, A1, IF{\textbackslash}textgreater1, Journal, peer reviewed},
}

Collaboration is a complex phenomenon, where intersubjective dynamics can greatly affect the productive outcome. Evaluation of collaboration is thus of great interest, and can potentially help achieve better outcomes and performance. However, quantitative measurement of collaboration is difficult, because much of the interaction occurs in the intersubjective space between collaborators. Manual observation and/or self-reports are subjective, laborious, and have a poor temporal resolution. The problem is compounded in natural settings where task-activity and response-compliance cannot be controlled. Physiological signals provide an objective mean to quantify intersubjective rapport (as synchrony), but require novel methods to support broad deployment outside the lab. We studied 28 student dyads during a self-directed classroom pair-programming exercise. Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system activation was measured during task performance using electrodermal activity and electrocardiography. Results suggest that (a) we can isolate cognitive processes (mental workload) from confounding environmental effects, and (b) electrodermal signals show role-specific but correlated affective response profiles. We demonstrate the potential for social physiological compliance to quantify pair-work in natural settings, with no experimental manipulation of participants required. Our objective approach has a high temporal resolution, is scalable, non-intrusive, and robust.

@article{cowley_psicat_2017,
	title = {The {PSICAT} protocol - {Primed} {Subjective}-{Illusory}-{Contour} {Attention} {Task} for studying integrated functional cognitive basis of sustained attention},
	doi = {10.17605/OSF.IO/GD5P4},
	abstract = {Understanding and measuring sustained attention is important for basic research and applications. Measurement and testing with computerised continuous performance tests is common. When studying the neural correlates of attention, such tests aim to isolate the construct of sustained attention. However, in any ecologically-valid context, sustained attention integrates with other executive functions and depends on lower level perceptual processing. Examination of these interactions is not well-served by existing options, and hence I propose a novel protocol to probe higher cognition and its neural correlates: the Primed Subjective Illusory Contour Attention Task (PSICAT). PSICAT tackles two important qualities of ecological attention: (a) successful attending may require inhibition of interference; (b) natural target stimuli are complex and often noisy. I describe a validation experiment measuring healthy participants with high-resolution electroencephalography. Behavioural and brain-imaging results validate the key hypotheses for the functionality of PSICAT. Additionally, I deomstrate the novel result that task-irrelevant incongruency of an intra-modal distractor prime can evoke stronger behavioural and neural responses than the task-relevant stimulus condition. Finally, the protocol is available as an open-source code repository at the following url, allowing researchers to reuse and adapt it to their particular requirements. https://github.com/zenBen/Kanizsa\_Prime/},
	language = {English},
	journal = {Open Science Framework Preprints},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin Ultan},
	year = {2017},
	keywords = {515 Psychology, B1, EEG, ERP, Gestalt, Sustained Attention, preprint},
}

Understanding and measuring sustained attention is important for basic research and applications. Measurement and testing with computerised continuous performance tests is common. When studying the neural correlates of attention, such tests aim to isolate the construct of sustained attention. However, in any ecologically-valid context, sustained attention integrates with other executive functions and depends on lower level perceptual processing. Examination of these interactions is not well-served by existing options, and hence I propose a novel protocol to probe higher cognition and its neural correlates: the Primed Subjective Illusory Contour Attention Task (PSICAT). PSICAT tackles two important qualities of ecological attention: (a) successful attending may require inhibition of interference; (b) natural target stimuli are complex and often noisy. I describe a validation experiment measuring healthy participants with high-resolution electroencephalography. Behavioural and brain-imaging results validate the key hypotheses for the functionality of PSICAT. Additionally, I deomstrate the novel result that task-irrelevant incongruency of an intra-modal distractor prime can evoke stronger behavioural and neural responses than the task-relevant stimulus condition. Finally, the protocol is available as an open-source code repository at the following url, allowing researchers to reuse and adapt it to their particular requirements. https://github.com/zenBen/Kanizsa_Prime/

@article{cowley_computational_2017,
	title = {Computational testing for automated preprocessing: a {Matlab} toolbox to enable large scale electroencephalography data processing},
	volume = {3},
	journal = {PeerJ Computer Science},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin U and Korpela, Jussi and Torniainen, Jari},
	year = {2017},
	note = {Publisher: PeerJ Inc.},
	keywords = {113 Computer and information sciences, 318 Medical biotechnology, 6162 Cognitive science, A1, Automation, Computation, EEGLAB, Electroencephalography, IF{\textbackslash}textgreater1, Journal, Preprocessing, Signal processing, Testing, peer reviewed},
	pages = {e108},
}

@article{cowley_green_2017,
	title = {Green {My} {Place}: {Evaluation} of a {Serious} {Social} {Online} {Game} {Designed} to {Promote} {Energy} {Efficient} {Behaviour} {Change}},
	volume = {4},
	issn = {2384-8766},
	doi = {10.17083/ijsg.v4i4.152},
	abstract = {Serious games are interventions with potential for tackling pressing issues by raising awareness and inciting behaviour change. However, it is unclear which design choices maximise efficient production or intervention efficacy. For example, health games and games tackling social crises may have radically different audiences. Furthermore, players of serious games don’t self-select like audiences for entertainment games, suggesting a need to examine and discuss the outcomes of any and all serious games built upon clear design principles for clearly-defined scenarios. This paper presents a case study of Green My Place, a series game promoting energyefficiency. GMP deployed unique site-specific metrics distinguishing it from similar projects ‘disembodied’ from the environments they are intended to affect. The game’s design methodology – an MMOG framework with atomic mini-games linked to specific learning materials – offers a scaleable generic solution applicable to any domain entailing awareness/education. Field study evaluations show (weak) positive evidence of a positive impact, but lack of traction hindered success. We examine these outcomes and their possible causes, concluding that although the game itself was a noble failure, the evidence suggests that successful behavioural influence may be independent of degree of engagement – a finding with potential significance for any game with learning objectives.},
	language = {English},
	number = {4},
	journal = {International Journal of Serious Games},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin and Bateman, Chris},
	year = {2017},
	keywords = {518 Media and communications, A1, Journal, peer reviewed},
	pages = {71--90},
}

Serious games are interventions with potential for tackling pressing issues by raising awareness and inciting behaviour change. However, it is unclear which design choices maximise efficient production or intervention efficacy. For example, health games and games tackling social crises may have radically different audiences. Furthermore, players of serious games don’t self-select like audiences for entertainment games, suggesting a need to examine and discuss the outcomes of any and all serious games built upon clear design principles for clearly-defined scenarios. This paper presents a case study of Green My Place, a series game promoting energyefficiency. GMP deployed unique site-specific metrics distinguishing it from similar projects ‘disembodied’ from the environments they are intended to affect. The game’s design methodology – an MMOG framework with atomic mini-games linked to specific learning materials – offers a scaleable generic solution applicable to any domain entailing awareness/education. Field study evaluations show (weak) positive evidence of a positive impact, but lack of traction hindered success. We examine these outcomes and their possible causes, concluding that although the game itself was a noble failure, the evidence suggests that successful behavioural influence may be independent of degree of engagement – a finding with potential significance for any game with learning objectives.

@incollection{ahonen_short_2016,
	edition = {00183v2},
	series = {{arXiv}.org},
	title = {A short review and primer on electroencephalography in human computer interaction applications},
	volume = {1609},
	copyright = {All rights reserved},
	abstract = {The application of psychophysiology in human-computer interaction is a growing field with significant potential for future smart personalised systems. Working in this emerging field requires comprehension of an array of physiological signals and analysis techniques. Methods to study central nervous system (CNS) are usually expensive and laborious. However, electroencephalography (EEG) is one of the most affordable and ambulatory methodologies for CNS research. It is in use in various clinical studies and have been broadly studied over decades. Despite that the recorded EEG signals are quite prone to noise and environmental factors it is the most widely used method in study of brain-computer interaction (BCI). Here we discuss briefly on various aspects of the recorded signals, their interpretation, and usage in the field of interaction studies. This paper aims to serve as a primer for the novice, enabling rapid familiarisation with the latest core concepts. We put special emphasis on everyday human-computer interface applications to distinguish from the more common clinical or sports uses of psychophysiology. This paper is an extract from a comprehensive review of the entire field of ambulatory psychophysiology, including 12 similar chapters, plus application guidelines and systematic review. Thus any citation should be made using the following reference: B. Cowley, M. Filetti, K. Lukander, J. Torniainen, A. Henelius, L. Ahonen, O. Barral, I. Kosunen, T. Valtonen, M. Huotilainen, N. Ravaja, G. Jacucci. The Psychophysiology Primer: a guide to methods and a broad review with a focus on human-computer interaction. Foundations and Trends in Human-Computer Interaction, vol. 9, no. 3-4, pp. 150–307, 2016.},
	language = {English},
	booktitle = {The {Psychophysiology} {Primer}},
	publisher = {Cornell University},
	author = {Ahonen, Lauri and Cowley, Benjamin},
	year = {2016},
	keywords = {B1, Preprint, cs.HC, q-bio.NC, unreviewed},
}

The application of psychophysiology in human-computer interaction is a growing field with significant potential for future smart personalised systems. Working in this emerging field requires comprehension of an array of physiological signals and analysis techniques. Methods to study central nervous system (CNS) are usually expensive and laborious. However, electroencephalography (EEG) is one of the most affordable and ambulatory methodologies for CNS research. It is in use in various clinical studies and have been broadly studied over decades. Despite that the recorded EEG signals are quite prone to noise and environmental factors it is the most widely used method in study of brain-computer interaction (BCI). Here we discuss briefly on various aspects of the recorded signals, their interpretation, and usage in the field of interaction studies. This paper aims to serve as a primer for the novice, enabling rapid familiarisation with the latest core concepts. We put special emphasis on everyday human-computer interface applications to distinguish from the more common clinical or sports uses of psychophysiology. This paper is an extract from a comprehensive review of the entire field of ambulatory psychophysiology, including 12 similar chapters, plus application guidelines and systematic review. Thus any citation should be made using the following reference: B. Cowley, M. Filetti, K. Lukander, J. Torniainen, A. Henelius, L. Ahonen, O. Barral, I. Kosunen, T. Valtonen, M. Huotilainen, N. Ravaja, G. Jacucci. The Psychophysiology Primer: a guide to methods and a broad review with a focus on human-computer interaction. Foundations and Trends in Human-Computer Interaction, vol. 9, no. 3-4, pp. 150–307, 2016.

@article{cowley_psychophysiology_2016,
	title = {The psychophysiology primer: {A} guide to methods and a broad review with a focus on human-computer interaction},
	volume = {9},
	issn = {1551-3955},
	doi = {10.1561/1100000065},
	language = {English},
	number = {3-4},
	journal = {Foundations and Trends in Human-Computer Interaction},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin Ultan and Filetti, Marco and Lukander, Kristian and Torniainen, Jari and Helenius, Andreas and Ahonen, Lauri and Barral Mery de Bellegarde, Oswald and Kosunen, Ilkka Johannes and Valtonen, Teppo and Huotilainen, Minna Johanna and Ravaja, Jaakko Niklas and Jacucci, Giulio},
	year = {2016},
	keywords = {113 Computer and information sciences, A2, Journal, peer reviewed},
	pages = {151--308},
}

@article{cowley_adaptive_2016,
	title = {Adaptive {Artificial} {Intelligence} in {Games}: {Issues}, {Requirements}, and a {Solution} through {Behavlets}-based {General} {Player} {Modelling}},
	issn = {2331-8422},
	abstract = {We present the last of a series of three academic essays which deal with the question of how and why to build a generalized player model. We propose that a general player model needs parameters for subjective experience of play, including: player psychology, game structure, and actions of play. Based on this proposition, we pose three linked research questions: RQ1 what is a necessary and sufficient foundation to a general player model?; RQ2 can such a foundation improve performance of a computational intelligence- based player model?; and RQ3 can such a player model improve efficacy of adaptive artificial intelligence in games? We set out the arguments behind these research questions in each of the three essays, presented as three preprints. The third essay, in this preprint, presents the argument that adaptive game artificial intelligence will be enhanced by a generalised player model. This is because games are inherently human artefacts which therefore, require some encoding of the human perspective in order to effectively autonomously respond to the individual player. The player model informs the necessary constraints on the adaptive artificial intelligence. A generalised player model is not only more efficient than a per-game solution, but also allows comparison between games which makes it a useful tool for studying play in general. We describe the concept and meaning of an adaptive game. We propose requirements for functional adaptive AI, arguing from first principles drawn from the games research literature. We propose solutions to these requirements, based on a formal model approach to our existing 'Behavlets' method for psychologically-derived player modelling: Cowley, B., \& Charles, D. (2016). Behavlets: a Method for Practical Player Modelling using Psychology-Based Player Traits and Domain Specific Features. User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction, 26(2), 257-306.},
	language = {English},
	journal = {arXiv.org},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin Ultan and Charles, Darryl},
	year = {2016},
	keywords = {515 Psychology, B1, Preprint, cs.HC, unreviewed},
}

We present the last of a series of three academic essays which deal with the question of how and why to build a generalized player model. We propose that a general player model needs parameters for subjective experience of play, including: player psychology, game structure, and actions of play. Based on this proposition, we pose three linked research questions: RQ1 what is a necessary and sufficient foundation to a general player model?; RQ2 can such a foundation improve performance of a computational intelligence- based player model?; and RQ3 can such a player model improve efficacy of adaptive artificial intelligence in games? We set out the arguments behind these research questions in each of the three essays, presented as three preprints. The third essay, in this preprint, presents the argument that adaptive game artificial intelligence will be enhanced by a generalised player model. This is because games are inherently human artefacts which therefore, require some encoding of the human perspective in order to effectively autonomously respond to the individual player. The player model informs the necessary constraints on the adaptive artificial intelligence. A generalised player model is not only more efficient than a per-game solution, but also allows comparison between games which makes it a useful tool for studying play in general. We describe the concept and meaning of an adaptive game. We propose requirements for functional adaptive AI, arguing from first principles drawn from the games research literature. We propose solutions to these requirements, based on a formal model approach to our existing 'Behavlets' method for psychologically-derived player modelling: Cowley, B., & Charles, D. (2016). Behavlets: a Method for Practical Player Modelling using Psychology-Based Player Traits and Domain Specific Features. User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction, 26(2), 257-306.

@article{cowley_utility_2016,
	title = {Utility of a {Behavlets} approach to a {Decision} theoretic predictive player model},
	volume = {1603.08973},
	abstract = {We present the second in a series of three academic essays which deal with the question of how to build a generalized player model. We begin with a proposition: a general model of players requires parameters for the subjective experience of play, including at least three areas: a) player psychology, b) game structure, and c) actions of play. Based on this proposition, we pose three linked research questions, which make incomplete progress toward a generalized player model: RQ1 what is a necessary and sufficient foundation to a general player model?; RQ2 can such a foundation improve performance of a computational intelligence-based player model?; and RQ3 can such a player model improve efficacy of adaptive artificial intelligence in games? We set out the arguments for each research question in each of the three essays, presented as three preprints. The second essay, in this preprint, illustrates how our 'Behavlets' method can improve the performance and accuracy of a predictive player model in the well-known Pac-Man game, by providing a simple foundation for areas a) to c) above. We then propose a plan for future work to address RQ2 by conclusively testing the Behavlets approach. This plan builds on the work proposed in the first preprint essay to address RQ1, and in turn provides support for work on RQ3. The Behavlets approach was described previously; therefore if citing this work please use the correct citation: Cowley B, Charles D. Behavlets: a Method for Practical Player Modelling using Psychology-Based Player Traits and Domain Specific Features. User Modelling and User-Adapted Interaction. 2016 Feb 8; online (Special Issue on Personality in Personalized Systems):150.},
	journal = {arXiv},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin Ultan and Charles, Darryl},
	month = mar,
	year = {2016},
	keywords = {515 Psychology, B1, H.1.2, Preprint, cs.HC, unreviewed},
}

We present the second in a series of three academic essays which deal with the question of how to build a generalized player model. We begin with a proposition: a general model of players requires parameters for the subjective experience of play, including at least three areas: a) player psychology, b) game structure, and c) actions of play. Based on this proposition, we pose three linked research questions, which make incomplete progress toward a generalized player model: RQ1 what is a necessary and sufficient foundation to a general player model?; RQ2 can such a foundation improve performance of a computational intelligence-based player model?; and RQ3 can such a player model improve efficacy of adaptive artificial intelligence in games? We set out the arguments for each research question in each of the three essays, presented as three preprints. The second essay, in this preprint, illustrates how our 'Behavlets' method can improve the performance and accuracy of a predictive player model in the well-known Pac-Man game, by providing a simple foundation for areas a) to c) above. We then propose a plan for future work to address RQ2 by conclusively testing the Behavlets approach. This plan builds on the work proposed in the first preprint essay to address RQ1, and in turn provides support for work on RQ3. The Behavlets approach was described previously; therefore if citing this work please use the correct citation: Cowley B, Charles D. Behavlets: a Method for Practical Player Modelling using Psychology-Based Player Traits and Domain Specific Features. User Modelling and User-Adapted Interaction. 2016 Feb 8; online (Special Issue on Personality in Personalized Systems):150.

@article{cowley_short_2016,
	title = {Short {Literature} {Review} for a {General} {Player} {Model} {Based} on {Behavlets}},
	volume = {1603.06996},
	issn = {2331-8422},
	abstract = {We present the first in a series of three academic essays which deal with the question of how to build a generalized player model. We begin with a proposition: a general model of players requires parameters for the subjective experience of play, including at least: player psychology, game structure, and actions of play. Based on this proposition, we pose three linked research questions, which make incomplete progress toward a generalised player model: RQ1 what is a necessary and sufficient foundation to a general player model?; RQ2 can such a foundation improve performance of a computational intelligence-based player model?; and RQ3 can such a player model improve efficacy of adaptive artificial intelligence in games? We set out the arguments behind these research questions in each of the three essays, presented as three preprints. The first essay, in this preprint, reviews the literature for the core foundations for a general player model. We then propose a plan for future work to systematically extend the review and thus provide an empirical answer to RQ1 above. This work will directly support the proposed approach to address RQ2 and RQ3 above. This review was developed to support our 'Behavlets' approach to player modelling; therefore if citing this work, please use the relevant citation: Cowley B, Charles D. Behavlets: a Method for Practical Player Modelling using Psychology-Based Player Traits and Domain Specific Features. User Modelling and User-Adapted Interaction. 2016 Feb 8; online (Special Issue on Personality in Personalized Systems):1-50.},
	language = {English},
	journal = {arXiv.org},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin Ultan and Charles, Darryl},
	year = {2016},
	keywords = {515 Psychology, B1, H.1.2, Preprint, cs.HC, unreviewed},
}

We present the first in a series of three academic essays which deal with the question of how to build a generalized player model. We begin with a proposition: a general model of players requires parameters for the subjective experience of play, including at least: player psychology, game structure, and actions of play. Based on this proposition, we pose three linked research questions, which make incomplete progress toward a generalised player model: RQ1 what is a necessary and sufficient foundation to a general player model?; RQ2 can such a foundation improve performance of a computational intelligence-based player model?; and RQ3 can such a player model improve efficacy of adaptive artificial intelligence in games? We set out the arguments behind these research questions in each of the three essays, presented as three preprints. The first essay, in this preprint, reviews the literature for the core foundations for a general player model. We then propose a plan for future work to systematically extend the review and thus provide an empirical answer to RQ1 above. This work will directly support the proposed approach to address RQ2 and RQ3 above. This review was developed to support our 'Behavlets' approach to player modelling; therefore if citing this work, please use the relevant citation: Cowley B, Charles D. Behavlets: a Method for Practical Player Modelling using Psychology-Based Player Traits and Domain Specific Features. User Modelling and User-Adapted Interaction. 2016 Feb 8; online (Special Issue on Personality in Personalized Systems):1-50.

@article{cowley_how_2016,
	title = {How to advance general game playing artificial intelligence by player modelling},
	issn = {2331-8422},
	abstract = {General game playing artificial intelligence has recently seen important advances due to the various techniques known as 'deep learning'. However the advances conceal equally important limitations in their reliance on: massive data sets; fortuitously constructed problems; and absence of any human-level complexity, including other human opponents. On the other hand, deep learning systems which do beat human champions, such as in Go, do not generalise well. The power of deep learning simultaneously exposes its weakness. Given that deep learning is mostly clever reconfigurations of well-established methods, moving beyond the state of art calls for forward-thinking visionary solutions, not just more of the same. I present the argument that general game playing artificial intelligence will require a generalised player model. This is because games are inherently human artefacts which therefore, as a class of problems, contain cases which require a human-style problem solving approach. I relate this argument to the performance of state of art general game playing agents. I then describe a concept for a formal category theoretic basis to a generalised player model. This formal model approach integrates my existing 'Behavlets' method for psychologically-derived player modelling: Cowley, B., Charles, D. (2016). Behavlets: a Method for Practical Player Modelling using Psychology-Based Player Traits and Domain Specific Features. User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction, 26(2), 257-306.},
	language = {English},
	journal = {arXiv.org},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin Ultan},
	year = {2016},
	keywords = {515 Psychology, B1, Preprint, cs.AI, cs.HC, unreviewed},
}

General game playing artificial intelligence has recently seen important advances due to the various techniques known as 'deep learning'. However the advances conceal equally important limitations in their reliance on: massive data sets; fortuitously constructed problems; and absence of any human-level complexity, including other human opponents. On the other hand, deep learning systems which do beat human champions, such as in Go, do not generalise well. The power of deep learning simultaneously exposes its weakness. Given that deep learning is mostly clever reconfigurations of well-established methods, moving beyond the state of art calls for forward-thinking visionary solutions, not just more of the same. I present the argument that general game playing artificial intelligence will require a generalised player model. This is because games are inherently human artefacts which therefore, as a class of problems, contain cases which require a human-style problem solving approach. I relate this argument to the performance of state of art general game playing agents. I then describe a concept for a formal category theoretic basis to a generalised player model. This formal model approach integrates my existing 'Behavlets' method for psychologically-derived player modelling: Cowley, B., Charles, D. (2016). Behavlets: a Method for Practical Player Modelling using Psychology-Based Player Traits and Domain Specific Features. User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction, 26(2), 257-306.

@article{cowley_forest_2016,
	title = {Forest, {Trees}, {Dynamics}: {Results} from a {Novel} {Wisconsin} {Card} {Sorting} {Test} {Variant} {Protocol} for {Studying} {Global}-{Local} {Attention} and {Complex} {Cognitive} {Processes}},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {1664-1078},
	doi = {10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00238},
	abstract = {Background: Recognition of objects and their context relies heavily on the integrated functioning of global and local visual processing. In a realistic setting such as work, this processing becomes a sustained activity, implying a consequent interaction with executive functions. Motivation: There have been many studies of either global-local attention or executive functions; however it is relatively novel to combine these processes to study a more ecological form of attention. We aim to explore the phenomenon of global-local processing during a task requiring sustained attention and working memory.Methods: We develop and test a novel protocol for global-local dissociation, with task structure including phases of divided ("rule search") and selective ("rule found") attention, based on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST). We test it in a laboratory study with 25 participants, and report on behavior measures (physiological data was also gathered, but not reported here). We develop novel stimuli with more naturalistic levels of information and noise, based primarily on face photographs, with consequently more ecological validity.Results: We report behavioral results indicating that sustained difficulty when participants test their hypotheses impacts matching-task performance, and diminishes the global precedence effect. Results also show a dissociation between subjectively experienced difficulty and objective dimension of performance, and establish the internal validity of the protocol.Contribution: We contribute an advance in the state of the art for testing global local attention processes in concert with complex cognition. With three results we establish a connection between global local dissociation and aspects of complex cognition. Our protocol also improves ecological validity and opens options for testing additional interactions in future work.},
	language = {English},
	journal = {Frontiers in Psychology},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin and Lukander, Kristian},
	year = {2016},
	keywords = {515 Psychology, A1, Attention, CHILDREN, ENVIRONMENT, ERP, Experimental protocol, HEMISPHERIC ASYMMETRIES, IF{\textbackslash}textgreater1, Journal, NETWORK, Object file theory, PERCEPTION, PRECEDENCE, Response time analysis, SALIENCY, TASK, TIME, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, attention, complex cognition, double filtering by frequency, forced choice task, global attention, global-local processing, local attention, object file theory, peer reviewed, response time analysis},
}

Background: Recognition of objects and their context relies heavily on the integrated functioning of global and local visual processing. In a realistic setting such as work, this processing becomes a sustained activity, implying a consequent interaction with executive functions. Motivation: There have been many studies of either global-local attention or executive functions; however it is relatively novel to combine these processes to study a more ecological form of attention. We aim to explore the phenomenon of global-local processing during a task requiring sustained attention and working memory.Methods: We develop and test a novel protocol for global-local dissociation, with task structure including phases of divided ("rule search") and selective ("rule found") attention, based on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST). We test it in a laboratory study with 25 participants, and report on behavior measures (physiological data was also gathered, but not reported here). We develop novel stimuli with more naturalistic levels of information and noise, based primarily on face photographs, with consequently more ecological validity.Results: We report behavioral results indicating that sustained difficulty when participants test their hypotheses impacts matching-task performance, and diminishes the global precedence effect. Results also show a dissociation between subjectively experienced difficulty and objective dimension of performance, and establish the internal validity of the protocol.Contribution: We contribute an advance in the state of the art for testing global local attention processes in concert with complex cognition. With three results we establish a connection between global local dissociation and aspects of complex cognition. Our protocol also improves ecological validity and opens options for testing additional interactions in future work.

@article{cowley_epileptic_2016,
	title = {Epileptic {Electroencephalography} {Profile} {Associates} with {Attention} {Problems} in {Children} with {Fragile} {X} {Syndrome}: {Review} and {Case} {Series}},
	volume = {10},
	copyright = {All rights reserved},
	issn = {1662-5161},
	doi = {10.3389/fnhum.2016.00353},
	abstract = {Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most common cause of inherited intellectual disability and a variant of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The FXS population is quite heterogeneous with respect to comorbidities, which implies the need for a personalized medicine approach, relying on biomarkers or endophenotypes to guide treatment. There is evidence that quantitative electroencephalography (EEG) endophenotype-guided treatments can support increased clinical benefit by considering the patient's neurophysiological profile. We describe a case series of 11 children diagnosed with FXS, aged one to 14 years, mean 4.6 years. Case data are based on longitudinal clinically-observed reports by attending physicians for comorbid symptoms including awake and asleep EEG profiles. We tabulate the comorbid EEG symptoms in this case series, and relate them to the literature on EEG endophenotypes and associated treatment options. The two most common endophenotypes in the data were diffuse slow oscillations and epileptiform EEG, which have been associated with attention and epilepsy respectively. This observation agrees with reported prevalence of comorbid behavioral symptoms for FXS. In this sample of FXS children, attention problems were found in 37\% (4 of 11), and epileptic seizures in 45\% (5 of 11). Attention problems were found to associate with the epilepsy endophenotype. From the synthesis of this case series and literature review, we argue that the evidence-based personalized treatment approach, exemplified by neurofeedback, could benefit FXS children by focusing on observable, specific characteristics of comorbid disease symptoms.},
	language = {English},
	journal = {Frontiers in Human Neuroscience},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin and Kirjanen, Svetlana and Partanen, Juhani and Castrén, Maija},
	year = {2016},
	keywords = {3111 Biomedicine, 3112 Neurosciences, 3124 Neurology and psychiatry, 515 Psychology, ADHD, AUTISM, DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER, GENE, HYPERACTIVITY, MALES, METAANALYSIS, NEUROFEEDBACK, QUANTITATIVE EEG, SPECIFICITY, attention deficit disorder, clinical case series, electroencephalography, endophenotype, fragile X syndrome, neurofeedback},
}

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most common cause of inherited intellectual disability and a variant of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The FXS population is quite heterogeneous with respect to comorbidities, which implies the need for a personalized medicine approach, relying on biomarkers or endophenotypes to guide treatment. There is evidence that quantitative electroencephalography (EEG) endophenotype-guided treatments can support increased clinical benefit by considering the patient's neurophysiological profile. We describe a case series of 11 children diagnosed with FXS, aged one to 14 years, mean 4.6 years. Case data are based on longitudinal clinically-observed reports by attending physicians for comorbid symptoms including awake and asleep EEG profiles. We tabulate the comorbid EEG symptoms in this case series, and relate them to the literature on EEG endophenotypes and associated treatment options. The two most common endophenotypes in the data were diffuse slow oscillations and epileptiform EEG, which have been associated with attention and epilepsy respectively. This observation agrees with reported prevalence of comorbid behavioral symptoms for FXS. In this sample of FXS children, attention problems were found in 37% (4 of 11), and epileptic seizures in 45% (5 of 11). Attention problems were found to associate with the epilepsy endophenotype. From the synthesis of this case series and literature review, we argue that the evidence-based personalized treatment approach, exemplified by neurofeedback, could benefit FXS children by focusing on observable, specific characteristics of comorbid disease symptoms.

@article{cowley_computer_2016,
	title = {Computer enabled neuroplasticity treatment: a clinical trial of a novel design for neurofeedback therapy in adult {ADHD}},
	volume = {10},
	journal = {Frontiers in Human Neuroscience},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin Ultan and Holmström, Édua and Juurmaa, Kristiina and Kovarskis, Levas and Krause, Christina M},
	year = {2016},
	note = {Publisher: Frontiers},
	keywords = {515 Psychology, A1, ATTENTION-DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER, Adult ADHD, Attention Deficit Disorder, Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, BRAIN, CHILDREN, CONTINUOUS PERFORMANCE-TEST, DEFICIT-HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER, Journal, Learning Transfer, Learning curves, METAANALYSIS, Neurofeedback, QUANTITATIVE EEG, Randomised controlled trial, SPECIFICITY, STIMULANT-DRUGS, TREATING AD/HD, adult, adult ADD, attention deficit disorder, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, learning curves, learning transfer, neurofeedback, peer reviewed, randomized controlled trial, waiting list control},
	pages = {205},
}

@article{cowley_behavlets_2016,
	title = {Behavlets: a {Method} for {Practical} {Player} {Modelling} using {Psychology}-{Based} {Player} {Traits} and {Domain} {Specific} {Features}},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {0924-1868},
	doi = {10.1007/s11257-016-9170-1},
	abstract = {As player demographics broaden it has become important to understand variation in player types. Improved player models can help game designers create games that accommodate a range of play styles/preferences, and may also facilitate the design of systems that detect player type and adapt dynamically in real-time. Existing approaches can model players, but most focus on tracking and classifying behaviour based on simple functional metrics such as deaths, specific choices, player avatar attributes, and completion times. We describe a different approach which seeks to leverage expert domain knowledge using a theoretical framework linking behaviour and game design patterns. The aim is to derive features of play from sequences of actions which are intrinsically informative about behaviour – which, because they are directly interpretable with respect to psychological theory of behaviour, we name ‘Behavlets’. We present the theoretical underpinning of this approach from research areas including psychology, temperament theory, player modelling, and game composition. The Behavlet creation process is described in detail; illustrated using a clone of the well-known game Pac-Man, with data gathered from 100 participants. A workshop evaluation study is also presented, where nine game design expert participants were briefed on the Behavlet concepts and requisite models, and then attempted to apply the method to games of the well-known first/third-person shooter genres, exemplified by ‘Gears of War’, (Microsoft). The participants found 139 Behavlet concepts mapping from behavioural preferences of the temperament types, to design patterns of the shooter genre games. We conclude that the Behavlet approach has significant promise, is complementary to existing methods and can improve theoretical validity of player models.},
	language = {English},
	number = {2},
	journal = {User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin and Charles, Darryl},
	year = {2016},
	keywords = {515 Psychology, A1, IF{\textbackslash}textgreater1, Journal, peer reviewed},
	pages = {257--306},
}

As player demographics broaden it has become important to understand variation in player types. Improved player models can help game designers create games that accommodate a range of play styles/preferences, and may also facilitate the design of systems that detect player type and adapt dynamically in real-time. Existing approaches can model players, but most focus on tracking and classifying behaviour based on simple functional metrics such as deaths, specific choices, player avatar attributes, and completion times. We describe a different approach which seeks to leverage expert domain knowledge using a theoretical framework linking behaviour and game design patterns. The aim is to derive features of play from sequences of actions which are intrinsically informative about behaviour – which, because they are directly interpretable with respect to psychological theory of behaviour, we name ‘Behavlets’. We present the theoretical underpinning of this approach from research areas including psychology, temperament theory, player modelling, and game composition. The Behavlet creation process is described in detail; illustrated using a clone of the well-known game Pac-Man, with data gathered from 100 participants. A workshop evaluation study is also presented, where nine game design expert participants were briefed on the Behavlet concepts and requisite models, and then attempted to apply the method to games of the well-known first/third-person shooter genres, exemplified by ‘Gears of War’, (Microsoft). The participants found 139 Behavlet concepts mapping from behavioural preferences of the temperament types, to design patterns of the shooter genre games. We conclude that the Behavlet approach has significant promise, is complementary to existing methods and can improve theoretical validity of player models.

@article{ahonen_cognitive_2016,
	title = {Cognitive {Collaboration} {Found} in {Cardiac} {Physiology}: {Study} in {Classroom} {Environment}},
	volume = {in press},
	journal = {PLoS One},
	author = {Ahonen, Lauri and Cowley, Benjamin and Torniainen, Jari and Ukkonen, Antti and Vihavainen, Arto and Puolamäki, Kai},
	year = {2016},
	keywords = {113 Computer and information sciences, 3124 Neurology and psychiatry, 5144 Social psychology, A1, HEART-RATE-VARIABILITY, INDEXES, Journal, MECHANISMS, TEAM PERFORMANCE, WORK, peer reviewed},
}

@incollection{cowley_short_2016-1,
	series = {{arXiv}.org},
	title = {A short review and primer on electrodermal activity in human computer interaction applications},
	volume = {1608.06986},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/1608.06986},
	abstract = {The application of psychophysiology in human-computer interaction is a growing field with significant potential for future smart personalised systems. Working in this emerging field requires comprehension of an array of physiological signals and analysis techniques. One of the most widely used signals is electrodermal activity, or EDA, also known as galvanic skin response or GSR. This signal is commonly used as a proxy for physiological arousal, but recent advances of interpretation and analysis suggest that traditional approaches should be revised. We present a short review on the application of EDA in human-computer interaction. This paper aims to serve as a primer for the novice, enabling rapid familiarisation with the latest core concepts. We put special emphasis on everyday human-computer interface applications to distinguish from the more common clinical or sports uses of psychophysiology. This paper is an extract from a comprehensive review of the entire field of ambulatory psychophysiology, including 12 similar chapters, plus application guidelines and systematic review. Thus any citation should be made using the following reference: B. Cowley, M. Filetti, K. Lukander, J. Torniainen, A. Henelius, L. Ahonen, O. Barral, I. Kosunen, T. Valtonen, M. Huotilainen, N. Ravaja, G. Jacucci. The Psychophysiology Primer: a guide to methods and a broad review with a focus on human-computer interaction. Foundations and Trends in Human-Computer Interaction, vol. 9, no. 3-4, pp. 150–307, 2016.},
	booktitle = {{arXiv}},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin Ultan and Torniainen, Jari},
	month = aug,
	year = {2016},
	keywords = {B1, Preprint, cs.HC, unreviewed},
}

The application of psychophysiology in human-computer interaction is a growing field with significant potential for future smart personalised systems. Working in this emerging field requires comprehension of an array of physiological signals and analysis techniques. One of the most widely used signals is electrodermal activity, or EDA, also known as galvanic skin response or GSR. This signal is commonly used as a proxy for physiological arousal, but recent advances of interpretation and analysis suggest that traditional approaches should be revised. We present a short review on the application of EDA in human-computer interaction. This paper aims to serve as a primer for the novice, enabling rapid familiarisation with the latest core concepts. We put special emphasis on everyday human-computer interface applications to distinguish from the more common clinical or sports uses of psychophysiology. This paper is an extract from a comprehensive review of the entire field of ambulatory psychophysiology, including 12 similar chapters, plus application guidelines and systematic review. Thus any citation should be made using the following reference: B. Cowley, M. Filetti, K. Lukander, J. Torniainen, A. Henelius, L. Ahonen, O. Barral, I. Kosunen, T. Valtonen, M. Huotilainen, N. Ravaja, G. Jacucci. The Psychophysiology Primer: a guide to methods and a broad review with a focus on human-computer interaction. Foundations and Trends in Human-Computer Interaction, vol. 9, no. 3-4, pp. 150–307, 2016.

@incollection{kosunen_short_2016,
	edition = {03283v1},
	series = {{arXiv}.org},
	title = {A short review and primer on respiration in human computer interaction applications},
	volume = {1609},
	abstract = {The application of psychophysiology in human-computer interaction is a growing field with significant potential for future smart personalised systems. Working in this emerging field requires comprehension of an array of physiological signals and analysis techniques. Respiration is unique among physiological signals in that it can be consciously controlled which has to be taken into account when designing applications. Respiration is tightly connected to other physiological signals, especially cardiovascular activity, and often analyzed in conjunction with other signals. When analyzed separately, an increase in the rate of respiration can be seen as an increase in metabolic demand which indicates activate states such as engagement and attention. We present a short review on the application of respiration in human-computer interaction. This paper aims to serve as a primer for the novice, enabling rapid familiarisation with the latest core concepts. We put special emphasis on everyday human-computer interface applications to distinguish from the more common clinical or sports uses of psychophysiology. This paper is an extract from a comprehensive review of the entire field of ambulatory psychophysiology, including 12 similar chapters, plus application guidelines and systematic review. Thus any citation should be made using the following reference: B. Cowley, M. Filetti, K. Lukander, J. Torniainen, A. Henelius, L. Ahonen, O. Barral, I. Kosunen, T. Valtonen, M. Huotilainen, N. Ravaja, G. Jacucci. The Psychophysiology Primer: a guide to methods and a broad review with a focus on human-computer interaction. Foundations and Trends in Human-Computer Interaction, vol. 9, no. 3-4, pp. 150–307, 2016.},
	language = {English},
	publisher = {Cornell University},
	author = {Kosunen, Ilkka and Cowley, Benjamin},
	month = sep,
	year = {2016},
	note = {Type: Other},
	keywords = {cs.HC},
}

The application of psychophysiology in human-computer interaction is a growing field with significant potential for future smart personalised systems. Working in this emerging field requires comprehension of an array of physiological signals and analysis techniques. Respiration is unique among physiological signals in that it can be consciously controlled which has to be taken into account when designing applications. Respiration is tightly connected to other physiological signals, especially cardiovascular activity, and often analyzed in conjunction with other signals. When analyzed separately, an increase in the rate of respiration can be seen as an increase in metabolic demand which indicates activate states such as engagement and attention. We present a short review on the application of respiration in human-computer interaction. This paper aims to serve as a primer for the novice, enabling rapid familiarisation with the latest core concepts. We put special emphasis on everyday human-computer interface applications to distinguish from the more common clinical or sports uses of psychophysiology. This paper is an extract from a comprehensive review of the entire field of ambulatory psychophysiology, including 12 similar chapters, plus application guidelines and systematic review. Thus any citation should be made using the following reference: B. Cowley, M. Filetti, K. Lukander, J. Torniainen, A. Henelius, L. Ahonen, O. Barral, I. Kosunen, T. Valtonen, M. Huotilainen, N. Ravaja, G. Jacucci. The Psychophysiology Primer: a guide to methods and a broad review with a focus on human-computer interaction. Foundations and Trends in Human-Computer Interaction, vol. 9, no. 3-4, pp. 150–307, 2016.

@incollection{huotilainen_short_2016,
	edition = {08353v2},
	series = {{arXiv}.org},
	title = {A short review and primer on event-related potentials in human computer interaction applications},
	volume = {1608},
	abstract = {The application of psychophysiology in human-computer interaction is a growing field with significant potential for future smart personalised systems. Working in this emerging field requires comprehension of an array of physiological signals and analysis techniques. Event-related potentials, termed ERPs, are a stimulus- or action-locked waveform indicating a characteristic neural response. ERPs derived from electroencephalography have been extensively studied in basic research, and have been applied especially in the field of brain-computer interfaces. For ecologically-valid settings there are considerable challenges to application, however recent work shows some promise for ERPs outside the lab. Here we present a short review on the application of ERPs in human-computer interaction. This paper aims to serve as a primer for the novice, enabling rapid familiarisation with the latest core concepts. We put special emphasis on everyday human-computer interface applications to distinguish from the more common clinical or sports uses of psychophysiology. This paper is an extract from a comprehensive review of the entire field of ambulatory psychophysiology, including 12 similar chapters, plus application guidelines and systematic review. Thus any citation should be made using the following reference: B. Cowley, M. Filetti, K. Lukander, J. Torniainen, A. Henelius, L. Ahonen, O. Barral, I. Kosunen, T. Valtonen, M. Huotilainen, N. Ravaja, G. Jacucci. The Psychophysiology Primer: a guide to methods and a broad review with a focus on human-computer interaction. Foundations and Trends in Human-Computer Interaction, vol. 9, no. 3-4, pp. 150–307, 2016.},
	language = {English},
	publisher = {Cornell University},
	author = {Huotilainen, Minna and Cowley, Benjamin and Ahonen, Lauri},
	month = aug,
	year = {2016},
	note = {Type: Other},
	keywords = {cs.HC},
}

The application of psychophysiology in human-computer interaction is a growing field with significant potential for future smart personalised systems. Working in this emerging field requires comprehension of an array of physiological signals and analysis techniques. Event-related potentials, termed ERPs, are a stimulus- or action-locked waveform indicating a characteristic neural response. ERPs derived from electroencephalography have been extensively studied in basic research, and have been applied especially in the field of brain-computer interfaces. For ecologically-valid settings there are considerable challenges to application, however recent work shows some promise for ERPs outside the lab. Here we present a short review on the application of ERPs in human-computer interaction. This paper aims to serve as a primer for the novice, enabling rapid familiarisation with the latest core concepts. We put special emphasis on everyday human-computer interface applications to distinguish from the more common clinical or sports uses of psychophysiology. This paper is an extract from a comprehensive review of the entire field of ambulatory psychophysiology, including 12 similar chapters, plus application guidelines and systematic review. Thus any citation should be made using the following reference: B. Cowley, M. Filetti, K. Lukander, J. Torniainen, A. Henelius, L. Ahonen, O. Barral, I. Kosunen, T. Valtonen, M. Huotilainen, N. Ravaja, G. Jacucci. The Psychophysiology Primer: a guide to methods and a broad review with a focus on human-computer interaction. Foundations and Trends in Human-Computer Interaction, vol. 9, no. 3-4, pp. 150–307, 2016.

@incollection{ravaja_short_2016,
	edition = {08041v2},
	series = {{arXiv}.org},
	title = {A short review and primer on electromyography in human computer interaction applications},
	volume = {1608},
	abstract = {The application of psychophysiology in human-computer interaction is a growing field with significant potential for future smart personalised systems. Working in this emerging field requires comprehension of an array of physiological signals and analysis techniques. Electromyography (EMG) is a useful signal to estimate the emotional context of individuals, because it is relatively robust, and simple to record and analyze. Common uses are to infer emotional valence in response to a stimulus, and to index some symptoms of stress. However, in order to interpret EMG signals, they must be considered alongside data on physical, social and intentional context. Here we present a short review on the application of EMG in human-computer interaction. This paper aims to serve as a primer for the novice, enabling rapid familiarisation with the latest core concepts. We put special emphasis on everyday human-computer interface applications to distinguish from the more common clinical or sports uses of psychophysiology. This paper is an extract from a comprehensive review of the entire field of ambulatory psychophysiology, including 12 similar chapters, plus application guidelines and systematic review. Thus any citation should be made using the following reference: B. Cowley, M. Filetti, K. Lukander, J. Torniainen, A. Henelius, L. Ahonen, O. Barral, I. Kosunen, T. Valtonen, M. Huotilainen, N. Ravaja, G. Jacucci. The Psychophysiology Primer: a guide to methods and a broad review with a focus on human-computer interaction. Foundations and Trends in Human-Computer Interaction, vol. 9, no. 3-4, pp. 150–307, 2016.},
	language = {English},
	publisher = {Cornell University},
	author = {Ravaja, Niklas and Cowley, Benjamin and Torniainen, Jari},
	month = aug,
	year = {2016},
	note = {Type: Other},
	keywords = {cs.HC},
}

The application of psychophysiology in human-computer interaction is a growing field with significant potential for future smart personalised systems. Working in this emerging field requires comprehension of an array of physiological signals and analysis techniques. Electromyography (EMG) is a useful signal to estimate the emotional context of individuals, because it is relatively robust, and simple to record and analyze. Common uses are to infer emotional valence in response to a stimulus, and to index some symptoms of stress. However, in order to interpret EMG signals, they must be considered alongside data on physical, social and intentional context. Here we present a short review on the application of EMG in human-computer interaction. This paper aims to serve as a primer for the novice, enabling rapid familiarisation with the latest core concepts. We put special emphasis on everyday human-computer interface applications to distinguish from the more common clinical or sports uses of psychophysiology. This paper is an extract from a comprehensive review of the entire field of ambulatory psychophysiology, including 12 similar chapters, plus application guidelines and systematic review. Thus any citation should be made using the following reference: B. Cowley, M. Filetti, K. Lukander, J. Torniainen, A. Henelius, L. Ahonen, O. Barral, I. Kosunen, T. Valtonen, M. Huotilainen, N. Ravaja, G. Jacucci. The Psychophysiology Primer: a guide to methods and a broad review with a focus on human-computer interaction. Foundations and Trends in Human-Computer Interaction, vol. 9, no. 3-4, pp. 150–307, 2016.

@inproceedings{torniainen_feasibility_2015,
	address = {Milan},
	title = {Feasibility of an electrodermal activity ring prototype as a research tool},
	booktitle = {{IEEE} {Engineering} in {Medicine} and {Biology} {Society} ({EMBC})},
	author = {Torniainen, Jari and Cowley, Benjamin and Henelius, Andreas and Lukander, Kristian and Pakarinen, Satu},
	year = {2015},
	keywords = {515 Psychology, A4, Conference, peer reviewed},
	pages = {submitted},
}

@inproceedings{cowley_eeg_2015,
	title = {An {EEG} study of {Fronto}-{Parietal} {Network} {Asymmetry} in a global-local dissociation task: [poster]},
	language = {English},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin and Lukander, Kristian},
	year = {2015},
}

@article{cowley_psychophysiology_2015,
	title = {Psychophysiology and high-performance cognition: a brief review of the literature},
	volume = {3},
	issn = {2167-9843},
	doi = {10.7287/peerj.preprints.1373v1},
	language = {English},
	journal = {PeerJ Preprints},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin},
	year = {2015},
	keywords = {515 Psychology, B1, COGNITION, Cognition, FLOW, PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY, Preprint, Psychophysiology, cognition, flow, high-performance cognition, psychophysiology, unreviewed},
}

@inproceedings{pakarinen_quantifying_2015,
	address = {Rio de Janeiro},
	title = {Quantifying {Mental} {Workload} {With} {Minimally} {Disruptive} {Measurements} {Of} {Cardiac} {And} {Electrodermal} {Activity} {In} {Real}-{Life} {Situations}},
	copyright = {All rights reserved},
	booktitle = {{IBRO}},
	publisher = {International Brain Research Organisation},
	author = {Pakarinen, Satu and Leinikka, Marianne and Torniainen, Jari and Henelius, Andreas and Cowley, Ben and Lukander, Kristian and Huotilainen, Minna},
	year = {2015},
	keywords = {515 Psykologi, Poster, unreviewed},
}

@inproceedings{cowley_attention_2014,
	address = {International},
	title = {Attention and the {Gestalt}.: {Experimental} {Investigation} of {Gestalt} {Imagery} {Processing} in {ADHD} using {Brain} {Imaging}},
	abstract = {We investigate the role of visual salience processing in attention performance using two novel Event-Related Potentials (ERP) paradigms, with attention deficit disorder (ADD) patients and healthy control group comparison. Saliency refers to an order of importance attached to features of a scene by the visual attention system, making certain features 'stand out'. Order of processing is 25-50ms. Task-related or top-down visual attention can modulate attention but the order is much slower, 200ms or more. ADD sufferers tend to be described as deficient in task-related attention: although their trial-to-trial response times may be normal, their response time variability is much larger than normal. However little is known about the nature or effects of differences in their information processing in the pre-conscious time range. The protocol uses primers to reinforce or interfere with illusory contour Kanizsa shapes or non-shapes in a choice-response task, and tests interference inhibition at the task-response level, and saliency-processing at the pre-attentive level. We thus address a number of open questions with regard to attention deficit disorder: 1. How is the performance (accuracy, response time) deficit of low-performing subjects affected by the difficulty of the task - i.e. do 'interference' trials incur a penalty compared to 'reinforcer' trials? Such a result would suggest that the long-term attention deficit is in part driven by deficient saliency processing. 2. Do ERP recordings validate the performance data? We look for early components to differ between ADHD and controls, namely, that ADHD N1 and N2 should be reduced in amplitude (and possibly delayed). Also, we predict the delayed P3a would be more strongly represented in the right hemisphere, presumably in response to the gestalt nature of the stimuli. Results are presented on ERP measures of source-localised neural activations derived from high-resolution electroencephalography.},
	language = {English},
	booktitle = {{XVII} {Biennial} {Meeting} of the {International} {Society} for {Comparative} {Psychology}},
	publisher = {International Society of Comparative Psychology},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin Ultan},
	year = {2014},
	keywords = {ADHD, Attention, Brain Imaging, EEG, ERP, Gestalt, Presentation, unreviewed},
}

We investigate the role of visual salience processing in attention performance using two novel Event-Related Potentials (ERP) paradigms, with attention deficit disorder (ADD) patients and healthy control group comparison. Saliency refers to an order of importance attached to features of a scene by the visual attention system, making certain features 'stand out'. Order of processing is 25-50ms. Task-related or top-down visual attention can modulate attention but the order is much slower, 200ms or more. ADD sufferers tend to be described as deficient in task-related attention: although their trial-to-trial response times may be normal, their response time variability is much larger than normal. However little is known about the nature or effects of differences in their information processing in the pre-conscious time range. The protocol uses primers to reinforce or interfere with illusory contour Kanizsa shapes or non-shapes in a choice-response task, and tests interference inhibition at the task-response level, and saliency-processing at the pre-attentive level. We thus address a number of open questions with regard to attention deficit disorder: 1. How is the performance (accuracy, response time) deficit of low-performing subjects affected by the difficulty of the task - i.e. do 'interference' trials incur a penalty compared to 'reinforcer' trials? Such a result would suggest that the long-term attention deficit is in part driven by deficient saliency processing. 2. Do ERP recordings validate the performance data? We look for early components to differ between ADHD and controls, namely, that ADHD N1 and N2 should be reduced in amplitude (and possibly delayed). Also, we predict the delayed P3a would be more strongly represented in the right hemisphere, presumably in response to the gestalt nature of the stimuli. Results are presented on ERP measures of source-localised neural activations derived from high-resolution electroencephalography.

@article{cowley_learning_2014,
	title = {Learning in balance: {Using} oscillatory {EEG} biomarkers of attention, motivation, and vigilance to interpret game-based learning},
	volume = {1},
	issn = {2331-186X},
	doi = {10.1080/2331186X.2014.962236},
	language = {English},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Cogent Education},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin and Ravaja, Niklas},
	year = {2014},
	keywords = {5144 Social psychology, 515 Psychology, A1, Attention, Electroencephalography, Journal, Motivation, Psychophysiology, attention, electroencephalography, evaluation, game-based learning, motivation, peer reviewed, psychophysiology, serious game, vigilance},
}

@article{cowley_experience_2014,
	title = {Experience assessment and design in the analysis of gameplay},
	volume = {41},
	issn = {1046-8781},
	doi = {10.1177/1046878113513936},
	language = {English},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Simulation \& Gaming},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin and Kosunen, Ilkka and Lankoski, Petri and Kivikangas, J. Matias and Järvelä, Simo and Ekman, Inger and Kemppainen, Jaakko and Ravaja, Niklas},
	year = {2014},
	keywords = {113 Computer and information sciences, A1, Journal, PPAX framework, behavior patterns, computer science, event clusters, experiment, game design, game experience, gameplay patterns, interdisciplinarity, machine learning, peer reviewed, personality profiles, psychophysiology},
	pages = {41--69},
}

@article{cowley_learning_2014-1,
	title = {Learning when serious: {Psychophysiological} evaluation of a technology-enhanced learning game},
	volume = {17},
	issn = {1176-3647},
	abstract = {We report an evaluation study for a novel learning platform, motivated by the growing need for serious game assessment methods.The method was a laboratory experiment combining evaluation methods from the fields of learning assessment and psychophysiology. 15 participants used the TARGET game platform for 25 minutes, while the bio-signals electrocardiography, electrodermal activity and facial electromyography were recorded. Learning was scored using pre- and post-test question-based assessments Repeated-measures analysis with Generalised Estimating Equations was used to predict scores by tonic psychophysiological data.Results indicate some learning effect, plus a relationship between mental workload (indexed by electrocardiography) and learning. We conclude that the best quality of insight is afforded by the combination of subjective self-report and objective psychophysiology.},
	language = {English},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Journal of educational technology \& society},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin and Fantato, Martino and Jennett, Charlene and Ruskov, Martin and Ravaja, Niklas},
	year = {2014},
	keywords = {A1, Competence development, Evaluation, Heart-rate variability, IF{\textgreater}1, IF{\textbackslash}textgreater1, Journal, Mental workload, Psychophysiology, Serious games, Technology enhanced learning, evaluation, mental workload, peer reviewed},
	pages = {3--16},
}

We report an evaluation study for a novel learning platform, motivated by the growing need for serious game assessment methods.The method was a laboratory experiment combining evaluation methods from the fields of learning assessment and psychophysiology. 15 participants used the TARGET game platform for 25 minutes, while the bio-signals electrocardiography, electrodermal activity and facial electromyography were recorded. Learning was scored using pre- and post-test question-based assessments Repeated-measures analysis with Generalised Estimating Equations was used to predict scores by tonic psychophysiological data.Results indicate some learning effect, plus a relationship between mental workload (indexed by electrocardiography) and learning. We conclude that the best quality of insight is afforded by the combination of subjective self-report and objective psychophysiology.

@incollection{cowley_quartic_2014,
	address = {International},
	title = {The {QUARTIC} {Process} {Model} for {Developing} {Serious} {Games}: ‘{Green} {My} {Place}’ {Case} {Study}},
	isbn = {978-1-4939-0964-3},
	abstract = {Software engineering for pedagogy and game design for entertainment produce very different requirements and generate unique kinds of practical difficulties. The design and development of serious games relies heavily on the experience of practitioners to overcome the pitfalls inherent in joining these two distinct processes into one, but experience in tackling these problems is not widespread. This creates a requirement for a process model to guide any development of integrated game-like and education-like elements, helping to manage risk in areas of hidden difficulty such as tightly integrating the mechanics of play with the formal pedagogy. This paper presents a process model for developing contextualized educational games. Parallel streams of pedagogy and game development are married to streamline the process of deriving appropriate educational games from client requirements. The process model is illustrated in action using the case of Green My Place, a serious game developed as part of the SAVE ENERGY EU project to teach energy efficient knowledge and behaviour to users of public buildings around Europe. Our evaluation highlights the positive outcome of the project and the functioning of the serious game; this evidence also suggests a positive benefit from using the model.},
	language = {English},
	booktitle = {Digital {Da} {Vinci}},
	publisher = {Springer},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin},
	editor = {Lee, Newton},
	year = {2014},
	doi = {10.1007/978-1-4939-0965-0_8},
	keywords = {515 Psychology},
	pages = {143--172},
}

Software engineering for pedagogy and game design for entertainment produce very different requirements and generate unique kinds of practical difficulties. The design and development of serious games relies heavily on the experience of practitioners to overcome the pitfalls inherent in joining these two distinct processes into one, but experience in tackling these problems is not widespread. This creates a requirement for a process model to guide any development of integrated game-like and education-like elements, helping to manage risk in areas of hidden difficulty such as tightly integrating the mechanics of play with the formal pedagogy. This paper presents a process model for developing contextualized educational games. Parallel streams of pedagogy and game development are married to streamline the process of deriving appropriate educational games from client requirements. The process model is illustrated in action using the case of Green My Place, a serious game developed as part of the SAVE ENERGY EU project to teach energy efficient knowledge and behaviour to users of public buildings around Europe. Our evaluation highlights the positive outcome of the project and the functioning of the serious game; this evidence also suggests a positive benefit from using the model.

@inproceedings{fantato_arousing_2013,
	address = {International},
	title = {Arousing learning: {Real}-time emotion recognition for technology-enhanced learning},
	copyright = {All rights reserved},
	language = {English},
	booktitle = {{eChallenges} e-2013 {Conference} {Proceedings}},
	publisher = {IIMC International Information Management Corporation},
	author = {Fantato, Martino and Cowley, Benjamin Ultan and Ravaja, Niklas},
	editor = {Cunningham, Paul and Cunningham, Miriam},
	year = {2013},
	keywords = {113 Computer and information sciences, 516 Educational sciences, 6162 Cognitive science},
}

@article{cowley_learning_2013,
	title = {Learning loops: {Interactions} between guided reflection and experience-based learning in a serious game activity},
	volume = {29},
	issn = {0266-4909},
	doi = {10.1111/jcal.12013},
	abstract = {In a study on experience-based learning in serious games, 45 players were tested for topic comprehension by a questionnaire administered before and after playing the single-player serious game Peacemaker (Impact Games 2007). Players were divided into two activity conditions: 20 played a 1-h game with a 3-min half-time break to complete an affect self-report form while 25 also participated in a 20-min reflective group discussion during their half-time break. During the discussion, they were asked by an experimenter to reflect on a set of topics related to the game. We present the analysis of the questionnaires, which illustrates that contrary to our expectations the reflection period had a negative effect on the learning of the players as judged by their performance on closed-form questions at levels 1–5 (out of 6) on the Bloom taxonomy of learning outcomes. The questionnaire also included a few open questions which gave the players a possibility to display deep (level 6) learning. The players did not differ significantly between conditions regarding the questions measuring deep learning.},
	language = {English},
	number = {4},
	journal = {Journal of Computer Assisted Learning},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin and Heikura, Tuija and Ravaja, Niklas},
	year = {2013},
	keywords = {516 Educational sciences, A1, IF{\textbackslash}textgreater1, Journal, peer reviewed},
	pages = {348--370},
}

In a study on experience-based learning in serious games, 45 players were tested for topic comprehension by a questionnaire administered before and after playing the single-player serious game Peacemaker (Impact Games 2007). Players were divided into two activity conditions: 20 played a 1-h game with a 3-min half-time break to complete an affect self-report form while 25 also participated in a 20-min reflective group discussion during their half-time break. During the discussion, they were asked by an experimenter to reflect on a set of topics related to the game. We present the analysis of the questionnaires, which illustrates that contrary to our expectations the reflection period had a negative effect on the learning of the players as judged by their performance on closed-form questions at levels 1–5 (out of 6) on the Bloom taxonomy of learning outcomes. The questionnaire also included a few open questions which gave the players a possibility to display deep (level 6) learning. The players did not differ significantly between conditions regarding the questions measuring deep learning.

@article{cowley_cardiovascular_2013,
	title = {Cardiovascular physiology predicts learning effects in a serious game activity},
	volume = {60},
	issn = {0360-1315},
	doi = {10.1016/j.compedu.2012.07.014},
	language = {English},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Computers \& Education},
	author = {Cowley, Ben and Ravaja, Niklas and Heikura, Tuija},
	year = {2013},
	keywords = {5144 Social psychology, A1, IF{\textbackslash}textgreater1, Journal, Learning, assessment, bloom taxonomy, facial electromyography, heart rate variability, learning, peacemaker, peer reviewed, serious game},
	pages = {299--309},
}

@article{cowley_real-time_2013,
	title = {Real-time rule-based classification of player types in computer games},
	volume = {23},
	issn = {0924-1868},
	doi = {10.1007/s11257-012-9126-z},
	abstract = {The power of using machine learning to improve or investigate the experience of play is only beginning to be realised. For instance, the experience of play is a psychological phenomenon, yet common psychological concepts such as the typology of temperaments have not been widely utilised in game design or research. An effective player typology provides a model by which we can analyse player behaviour. We present a real-time classifier of player type, implemented in the test-bed game Pac-Man. Decision Tree algorithms CART and C5.0 were trained on labels from the DGD player typology (Bateman and Boon, 21st century game design, vol. 1, 2005). The classifier is then built by selecting rules from the Decision Trees using a rule- performance metric, and experimentally validated. We achieve 70\% accuracy in this validation testing. We further analyse the concept descriptions learned by the Decision Trees. The algorithm output is examined with respect to a set of hypotheses on player behaviour. A set of open questions is then posed against the test data obtained from validation testing, to illustrate the further insights possible from extended analysis.},
	language = {English},
	number = {5},
	journal = {User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction},
	author = {Cowley, Ben and Charles, Darryl and Black, Michaela and Hickey, Ray},
	year = {2013},
	keywords = {515 Psychology, A1, IF{\textbackslash}textgreater1, Journal, peer reviewed},
	pages = {489--526},
}

The power of using machine learning to improve or investigate the experience of play is only beginning to be realised. For instance, the experience of play is a psychological phenomenon, yet common psychological concepts such as the typology of temperaments have not been widely utilised in game design or research. An effective player typology provides a model by which we can analyse player behaviour. We present a real-time classifier of player type, implemented in the test-bed game Pac-Man. Decision Tree algorithms CART and C5.0 were trained on labels from the DGD player typology (Bateman and Boon, 21st century game design, vol. 1, 2005). The classifier is then built by selecting rules from the Decision Trees using a rule- performance metric, and experimentally validated. We achieve 70% accuracy in this validation testing. We further analyse the concept descriptions learned by the Decision Trees. The algorithm output is examined with respect to a set of hypotheses on player behaviour. A set of open questions is then posed against the test data obtained from validation testing, to illustrate the further insights possible from extended analysis.

@incollection{cowley_quartic_2012,
	address = {United States},
	title = {The {QUARTIC} {Process} {Model} to {Support} {Serious} {Games} {Development} for {Contextualized} {Competence}-{Based} {Learning} and {Assessment}},
	volume = {Volume 1},
	isbn = {978-1-4666-0149-9},
	abstract = {This chapter presents the QUARTIC process model for developing contextualized, competence-based educational games. Parallel streams of pedagogy and game development have been married to streamline the process of deriving appropriate educational games from client requirements. Furthermore, the authors describe two methodologies to improve the complementarity of the streams: one for building contextualised narrative, and one for describing competences applied in context. This increases the applicability of learning outcomes and allows the simultaneous assessment of learning while gaming. The work presented is a part of the European research project TARGET aimed at rapid competence development for knowledge workers.},
	language = {English},
	booktitle = {Handbook of {Research} on {Serious} {Games} as {Educational}, {Business} and {Research} {Tools}: {Development} and {Design}},
	publisher = {IGI Global},
	author = {Cowley, Ben and Bedek, Michael and Ribiero, Claudia and Heikura, Tuija and Petersen, Sobah Abbas},
	editor = {Cruz-Cunha, Maria-Manuela},
	year = {2012},
	doi = {10.4018/978-1-4666-0149-9.ch025},
	keywords = {516 Educational sciences},
	pages = {491--519},
}

This chapter presents the QUARTIC process model for developing contextualized, competence-based educational games. Parallel streams of pedagogy and game development have been married to streamline the process of deriving appropriate educational games from client requirements. Furthermore, the authors describe two methodologies to improve the complementarity of the streams: one for building contextualised narrative, and one for describing competences applied in context. This increases the applicability of learning outcomes and allows the simultaneous assessment of learning while gaming. The work presented is a part of the European research project TARGET aimed at rapid competence development for knowledge workers.

@inproceedings{cowley_cent_2012,
	title = {C.{E}.{N}.{T}. {Computer} {Enabled} {Neuroplasticity} {Treatment}},
	language = {English},
	booktitle = {Unknown host publication},
	author = {Cowley, Ben and Juurmaa, Kristiina and Repo, Marko},
	year = {2012},
}

@article{kivikangas_review_2011,
	title = {A review of the use of psychophysiological methods in game research},
	volume = {3},
	copyright = {All rights reserved},
	issn = {1757-191X},
	doi = {10.1386/jgvw.3.3.181_1},
	abstract = {This paper reviews the psychophysiological method in game research. The use of psychophysiological measurements provides an objective, continuous, real-time, non-invasive, precise, and sensitive way to assess the game experience, but for best results it requires carefully controlled experiments, large participant samples and specialized equipment. We briefly explain the theory behind the method and present the most useful measures. We review previous studies that have used psychophysiological measures in game research, and provide future directions. Our paper covers several research tracks using psychophysiological method in game studies, and offers a comprehensive list of references for those interested in the field.},
	language = {English},
	number = {3},
	journal = {Journal of Gaming \& Virtual Worlds},
	author = {Kivikangas, J. Matias and Chanel, Guillaume and Cowley, Ben and Ekman, Inger and Salminen, Mikko and Järvelä, Simo and Ravaja, Niklas},
	year = {2011},
	keywords = {5144 Social psychology},
	pages = {181--199},
}

This paper reviews the psychophysiological method in game research. The use of psychophysiological measurements provides an objective, continuous, real-time, non-invasive, precise, and sensitive way to assess the game experience, but for best results it requires carefully controlled experiments, large participant samples and specialized equipment. We briefly explain the theory behind the method and present the most useful measures. We review previous studies that have used psychophysiological measures in game research, and provide future directions. Our paper covers several research tracks using psychophysiological method in game studies, and offers a comprehensive list of references for those interested in the field.

@article{cowley_learning_2011,
	title = {Learning {Principles} and {Interaction} {Design} for ‘{Green} {My} {Place}’: a {Massively} {Multiplayer} {Serious} {Game}},
	volume = {2},
	issn = {1875-9521},
	doi = {10.1016/j.entcom.2011.01.001},
	abstract = {The usual approach to serious game design is to construct a single game intended to address the specific domain problem being addressed. This paper describes a novel alternative approach, focussed on embedding smaller game elements into a comprehensive framework, which provides stronger motive for play and thus greater chance of effect. This serious game design methodology was developed for an EU project to teach energy efficient knowledge and behaviour to users of public buildings around Europe. The successful implementation of this game is also described. The cutting-edge educational principles that formed the basis for the design are drawn from recent research in serious games and energy efficiency, and include the Behavlet, a novel behaviour-transformation concept developed by the authors. The game design framework presented illustrates a clear approach for serious games dealing with topics applicable at societal scales.},
	language = {English},
	number = {2},
	journal = {Entertainment Computing},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin and Moutinho, Jose and Bateman, Chris and Oliveira, Alvaro},
	year = {2011},
	keywords = {A1, Journal, peer reviewed},
	pages = {10},
}

The usual approach to serious game design is to construct a single game intended to address the specific domain problem being addressed. This paper describes a novel alternative approach, focussed on embedding smaller game elements into a comprehensive framework, which provides stronger motive for play and thus greater chance of effect. This serious game design methodology was developed for an EU project to teach energy efficient knowledge and behaviour to users of public buildings around Europe. The successful implementation of this game is also described. The cutting-edge educational principles that formed the basis for the design are drawn from recent research in serious games and energy efficiency, and include the Behavlet, a novel behaviour-transformation concept developed by the authors. The game design framework presented illustrates a clear approach for serious games dealing with topics applicable at societal scales.

@inproceedings{bedek_assessment_2011,
	title = {Assessment of the emotional state by psycho-physiological and implicit measurement},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the 13th {International} {Conference} on {Multimodal} {Interaction} {ICMI} 2011},
	author = {Bedek, Michael and Cowley, Benjamin Ultan and Seitlinger, Paul and Fantato, Martino and Kopeinik, Simone and Albert, Dietrich and Ravaja, Niklas},
	year = {2011},
	keywords = {5144 Social psychology},
}

@inproceedings{kivikangas_review_2010,
	address = {Stockholm},
	title = {Review on psychophysiological methods in game research},
	abstract = {This paper reviews the psychophysiological method in game research. The use of psychophysiological measurements provides an objective, continuous, real-time, non-invasive, precise, and sensitive way to assess the game experience, but for best results it requires carefully controlled experiments, large participant samples and specialized equipment. We briefly explain the theory behind the method and present the most useful measures. We review previous studies that have used psychophysiological measures in game research, and provide future directions.},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of {DiGRA} {Nordic} 2010: {Experiencing} {Games}: {Games}, {Play}, and {Players}},
	publisher = {University of Stockholm},
	author = {Kivikangas, Matias and Ekman, Inger and Chanel, Guillaume and Järvelä, Simo and Cowley, Ben and Salminen, Mikko and Henttonen, Pentti and Ravaja, Niklas},
	year = {2010},
	keywords = {5144 Social psychology, A4, Conference, peer reviewed},
}

This paper reviews the psychophysiological method in game research. The use of psychophysiological measurements provides an objective, continuous, real-time, non-invasive, precise, and sensitive way to assess the game experience, but for best results it requires carefully controlled experiments, large participant samples and specialized equipment. We briefly explain the theory behind the method and present the most useful measures. We review previous studies that have used psychophysiological measures in game research, and provide future directions.

@inproceedings{cowley_analyzing_2009,
	address = {International},
	title = {Analyzing player behavior in pacman using feature-driven decision theoretic predictive modeling},
	abstract = {We describe the results of a modeling methodology that combines the formal choice-system representation of decision theory with a human player-focused description of the behavioral features of game play in Pacman. This predictive player modeler addresses issues raised in previous work [1] and [2], to produce reliable accuracy. This paper focuses on using player-centric knowledge to reason about player behavior, utilizing a set of features which describe game-play to obtain quantitative data corresponding to qualitative behavioral concepts.},
	language = {English},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the 5th international conference on {Computational} {Intelligence} and {Games}},
	publisher = {IEEE Press},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin and Charles, Darryl and Black, Michaela and Hickey, Ray},
	year = {2009},
	keywords = {A4, Conference, peer reviewed},
	pages = {170--177},
}

We describe the results of a modeling methodology that combines the formal choice-system representation of decision theory with a human player-focused description of the behavioral features of game play in Pacman. This predictive player modeler addresses issues raised in previous work [1] and [2], to produce reliable accuracy. This paper focuses on using player-centric knowledge to reason about player behavior, utilizing a set of features which describe game-play to obtain quantitative data corresponding to qualitative behavioral concepts.

@article{cowley_toward_2008,
	title = {Toward an understanding of flow in video games},
	volume = {6},
	copyright = {All rights reserved},
	issn = {1544-3574},
	doi = {10.1145/1371216.1371223},
	abstract = {In the domain of computer games, research into the interaction between player and game has centred on 'enjoyment', often drawing in particular on optimal experience research and Csikszentmihalyi's 'Flow theory'. Flow is a well-established construct for examining experience in any setting and its application to game-play is intuitive. Nevertheless, it's not immediately obvious how to translate between the flow construct and an operative description of game-play. Previous research has attempted this translation through analogy. In this article we propose a practical, integrated approach for analysis of the mechanics and aesthetics of game-play, which helps develop deeper insights into the capacity for flow within games.The relationship between player and game, characterized by learning and enjoyment, is central to our analysis. We begin by framing that relationship within Cowley's user-system-experience (USE) model, and expand this into an information systems framework, which enables a practical mapping of flow onto game-play. We believe this approach enhances our understanding of a player's interaction with a game and provides useful insights for games' researchers seeking to devise mechanisms to adapt game-play to individual players.},
	language = {English},
	number = {2},
	journal = {Computers in Entertainment},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin and Charles, Darryl and Black, Michaela and Hickey, Ray},
	year = {2008},
	keywords = {A1, Journal, peer reviewed},
	pages = {1--27},
}

In the domain of computer games, research into the interaction between player and game has centred on 'enjoyment', often drawing in particular on optimal experience research and Csikszentmihalyi's 'Flow theory'. Flow is a well-established construct for examining experience in any setting and its application to game-play is intuitive. Nevertheless, it's not immediately obvious how to translate between the flow construct and an operative description of game-play. Previous research has attempted this translation through analogy. In this article we propose a practical, integrated approach for analysis of the mechanics and aesthetics of game-play, which helps develop deeper insights into the capacity for flow within games.The relationship between player and game, characterized by learning and enjoyment, is central to our analysis. We begin by framing that relationship within Cowley's user-system-experience (USE) model, and expand this into an information systems framework, which enables a practical mapping of flow onto game-play. We believe this approach enhances our understanding of a player's interaction with a game and provides useful insights for games' researchers seeking to devise mechanisms to adapt game-play to individual players.

@inproceedings{cowley_data-driven_2007,
	address = {United States},
	title = {Data-{Driven} {Decision} {Theory} for {Player} {Analysis} in {Pacman}},
	abstract = {Computer and videogames have been described using several formal systems – in this paper we consider them as Information Systems. In particular, we use a Decision Theoretic approach to model and analyse off-line, data from PacmanTM players. Our method attempts to calculate the optimal choices available to a player based on key utilities for a given game state. Our hypothesis in this approach is that observing a player’s deviation from the optimal choices predicted can reveal their play preferences and skill, and thus form a basic player classifier. The method described builds on work done in [Cowley et al 2006], increasing the scope and sophistication of the model by decreasing reliance on supervision. The downside is a consequent performance hit, which prevents real-time execution of the modelling algorithm. In this paper we outline the basic principle of the Decision Theoretic approach and discuss the results of our evolution toward data-driven classification. Introduction},
	language = {English},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of {Articifical} {Intelligence} in {Interactive} {Digital} {Entertainment} 2007},
	publisher = {AAAI Press},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin and Charles, Darryl and Black, Michaela M and Hickey, Ray J},
	editor = {Yannakakis, Georgios},
	year = {2007},
	keywords = {A4, Conference, peer reviewed},
	pages = {25--30},
}

Computer and videogames have been described using several formal systems – in this paper we consider them as Information Systems. In particular, we use a Decision Theoretic approach to model and analyse off-line, data from PacmanTM players. Our method attempts to calculate the optimal choices available to a player based on key utilities for a given game state. Our hypothesis in this approach is that observing a player’s deviation from the optimal choices predicted can reveal their play preferences and skill, and thus form a basic player classifier. The method described builds on work done in [Cowley et al 2006], increasing the scope and sophistication of the model by decreasing reliance on supervision. The downside is a consequent performance hit, which prevents real-time execution of the modelling algorithm. In this paper we outline the basic principle of the Decision Theoretic approach and discuss the results of our evolution toward data-driven classification. Introduction

@inproceedings{cowley_using_2006,
	title = {Using {Decision} {Theory} for {Player} {Analysis} in {Pacman}},
	abstract = {Computer and videogames have been described using several formal systems – in this paper we consider them as Information Systems. In particular, we use a Decision Theoretic approach to model players dynamically in real- time Pacman (Namco 1980). The method described provides low-level in-game data capture which can provide a simple metric of challenge and player skill, which are key components in measuring the optimality of player experience based on Flow theory. Our approach is based on the calculation of optimal choices available to a player based on key utilities for a given game state. Our hypothesis is that observing a player’s deviation from an expected path can reveal their play preferences and skill, and help enhance our player models. Improved models will then enable in-game adaptation, to better suit individual players. In this paper we outline the basic principle of this approach and discuss the results of our first experiment. Keywords:},
	language = {English},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of {Simulation} of {Adaptive} {Behavior} 2006},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin and Charles, Darryl and Black, Michaela M and Hickey, Ray J},
	editor = {Yannakakis, Georgios and Hallam, John},
	year = {2006},
	keywords = {A4, Conference, peer reviewed},
	pages = {41--50},
}

Computer and videogames have been described using several formal systems – in this paper we consider them as Information Systems. In particular, we use a Decision Theoretic approach to model players dynamically in real- time Pacman (Namco 1980). The method described provides low-level in-game data capture which can provide a simple metric of challenge and player skill, which are key components in measuring the optimality of player experience based on Flow theory. Our approach is based on the calculation of optimal choices available to a player based on key utilities for a given game state. Our hypothesis is that observing a player’s deviation from an expected path can reveal their play preferences and skill, and help enhance our player models. Improved models will then enable in-game adaptation, to better suit individual players. In this paper we outline the basic principle of this approach and discuss the results of our first experiment. Keywords:

@inproceedings{cowley_user-system-experience_2006,
	address = {United States},
	title = {User-{System}-{Experience} {Model} for {User} {Centered} {Design} in {Computer} {Games}},
	volume = {4018},
	doi = {10.1007/11768012_62},
	abstract = {This paper details the central ideas to date, from a PhD entitled ‘Player Profiling for Adaptive Artificial Intelligence in Computer and Video Games’. Computer and videogames differ from other web and productivity software in that games are much more highly interactive and immersive experiences. Whereas usability and user modelling for other software may be based on productivity alone, games require an additional factor that takes account of the quality of the user experience in playing a game. In order to describe that experience we describe a model of User, System and Experience (USE) in which the primary construct for evaluation of a player’s experience will be the Experience Fluctuation Model (EFM), taken from Flow theory. We illustrate with a straightforward example how this system may be automated in real-time within a commercial game.},
	language = {English},
	booktitle = {Adaptive {Hypermedia} and {Adaptive} {Web}-{Based} {Systems}},
	publisher = {Springer},
	author = {Cowley, Benjamin and Charles, Darryl and Black, Michaela and Hickey, Ray},
	year = {2006},
	pages = {419--424},
}

This paper details the central ideas to date, from a PhD entitled ‘Player Profiling for Adaptive Artificial Intelligence in Computer and Video Games’. Computer and videogames differ from other web and productivity software in that games are much more highly interactive and immersive experiences. Whereas usability and user modelling for other software may be based on productivity alone, games require an additional factor that takes account of the quality of the user experience in playing a game. In order to describe that experience we describe a model of User, System and Experience (USE) in which the primary construct for evaluation of a player’s experience will be the Experience Fluctuation Model (EFM), taken from Flow theory. We illustrate with a straightforward example how this system may be automated in real-time within a commercial game.