@phdthesis{navis_conservation_2025,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	type = {Ph.{D}. {Dissertation}},
	title = {Conservation {Amidst} {Complexity}: {Strategic} {Approaches} to {Informed} {Decision}-{Making} for {Management} of a {Rare} {Salamander}},
	abstract = {The conservation of rare and data-deficient species with highly complex and plastic life histories can present a particularly difficult challenge to wildlife managers. When data are limited but conservation status drives the need for prompt intervention, it can be difficult to weigh alternate management approaches and predict anticipated outcomes. In this dissertation I present multiple components of varied research to better understand and guide management decisions for the conservation of Striped Newts in the southeastern United States. In Chapter 2, I contextualize this research and situate it in place by examining the interconnected human and ecological histories of a tract currently managed for species conservation in southwestern Georgia. In Chapter 3, I use data from observational field research to fill gaps in knowledge on the dynamics of a Striped Newt population in Georgia. In Chapter 4 I use ex situ and in situ experiments to evaluate postrelease outcomes of common captive rearing and repatriation strategies and reveal carryover effects of captivity on Striped Newt development after release. Chapters 5 and 7 address practical considerations related to captive husbandry of Striped Newts; Chapter 5 covers outcomes and lessons from a pilot experiment to reduce development consequences of captivity on Striped Newts through use of outdoor mesocosms, and in Chapter 7 I report the first protocol shown to eliminate Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in infected captive Striped Newts. In Chapter 6 I combine results from other studies in this dissertation and other best available data to develop a population viability model with utility in guiding conservation decisions between alternate management strategies and in identifying priority areas for further research.},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Navis, Corrie J.},
	year = {2025},
}

The conservation of rare and data-deficient species with highly complex and plastic life histories can present a particularly difficult challenge to wildlife managers. When data are limited but conservation status drives the need for prompt intervention, it can be difficult to weigh alternate management approaches and predict anticipated outcomes. In this dissertation I present multiple components of varied research to better understand and guide management decisions for the conservation of Striped Newts in the southeastern United States. In Chapter 2, I contextualize this research and situate it in place by examining the interconnected human and ecological histories of a tract currently managed for species conservation in southwestern Georgia. In Chapter 3, I use data from observational field research to fill gaps in knowledge on the dynamics of a Striped Newt population in Georgia. In Chapter 4 I use ex situ and in situ experiments to evaluate postrelease outcomes of common captive rearing and repatriation strategies and reveal carryover effects of captivity on Striped Newt development after release. Chapters 5 and 7 address practical considerations related to captive husbandry of Striped Newts; Chapter 5 covers outcomes and lessons from a pilot experiment to reduce development consequences of captivity on Striped Newts through use of outdoor mesocosms, and in Chapter 7 I report the first protocol shown to eliminate Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in infected captive Striped Newts. In Chapter 6 I combine results from other studies in this dissertation and other best available data to develop a population viability model with utility in guiding conservation decisions between alternate management strategies and in identifying priority areas for further research.

@phdthesis{lange_sexual_2024,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	type = {@bathesis},
	title = {Sexual size dimorphism in neonate {Nerodia} sipedon under controlled conditions over an early-life period},
	abstract = {We used weekly data on the snout-vent-length (SVL) and consumption of food in a population of wild, captive-born Nerodia sipedon collected over the first 67 weeks of life to evaluate multiple hypotheses exploring early-life sexual size dimorphism (SSD) in the species. We tested for the presence of SSD in an environment were access to food, water, heat, shelter, and protection from predation and competition were all equal between individual snakes to measure the extent of SSD under these conditions and detect any difference in resource allocation between sexes. We compared male and female consumption rates to test for a difference in appetite even under controlled conditions without the threat of predation. The snakes received thiamine supplementation during the final 20 weeks of the study, and we tested the effect of thiamine on growth and consumption.

SSD is evident even in this captive-raised population, though not to the same extent as in four free-living N. sipedon populations used in Shine (1994) due to the study period only encompassing the first 67 weeks of life. A difference in consumption rates is also evident, with females consuming more food than males. No difference in the relationship between consumption and growth was detected between sexes, suggesting that if males and females have differences in resource allocation, it begins after sexual maturity or at least later in life than our study period covers. We found no conclusive effect of thiamine supplementation on growth rate, though further studies are needed to explore this relationship.},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Lange, Dylan},
	year = {2024},
}

We used weekly data on the snout-vent-length (SVL) and consumption of food in a population of wild, captive-born Nerodia sipedon collected over the first 67 weeks of life to evaluate multiple hypotheses exploring early-life sexual size dimorphism (SSD) in the species. We tested for the presence of SSD in an environment were access to food, water, heat, shelter, and protection from predation and competition were all equal between individual snakes to measure the extent of SSD under these conditions and detect any difference in resource allocation between sexes. We compared male and female consumption rates to test for a difference in appetite even under controlled conditions without the threat of predation. The snakes received thiamine supplementation during the final 20 weeks of the study, and we tested the effect of thiamine on growth and consumption. SSD is evident even in this captive-raised population, though not to the same extent as in four free-living N. sipedon populations used in Shine (1994) due to the study period only encompassing the first 67 weeks of life. A difference in consumption rates is also evident, with females consuming more food than males. No difference in the relationship between consumption and growth was detected between sexes, suggesting that if males and females have differences in resource allocation, it begins after sexual maturity or at least later in life than our study period covers. We found no conclusive effect of thiamine supplementation on growth rate, though further studies are needed to explore this relationship.

@phdthesis{crenshaw_investigating_2024,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	type = {Senior {Thesis}},
	title = {Investigating {Post}-release {Behavior} and {Survival} of {Hard} and {Soft}-{Released} {Captive} {Reared} {Gopher} {Frogs} ({Rana} capito)},
	abstract = {Amphibian populations are declining due to habitat loss and fragmentation. The Gopher Frog (Rana capito) is an amphibian threatened by the losses of ephemeral wetlands and firemaintained, pine savanna habitat and increasing isolation among remnant populations. Gopher frogs are the focus of a growing number of captive-rearing and translocation programs in the southeast. Mortality of recently metamorphosed, captive-reared Gopher Frogs is high. It has been recommended that releasing Gopher Frogs in soft-release enclosures with artificial burrows for an acclimation period may increase survivorship. It has also been proposed that raising frogs in captivity longer to a larger size [head starting] may improve Gopher Frog post-release survival. This study follows one-year-old and two-year-old, captive-reared Gopher Frogs who were assigned to either a soft or hard-release treatment at the James W Webb Wildlife Center and Game Management Area in Hampton County, South Carolina. Soft-release frogs were held in field enclosures with artificial burrows for one month and then hard and soft-release frogs were tracked using VHF telemetry. Fate, net displacement from release points, total distance moved, and tortuosity were calculated for each frog. One-year-old Gopher Frogs had higher survivorship than two-year-old frogs. Predation by semi-aquatic snakes was the main source of mortality postrelease. Two-year-old frogs showed abnormal behaviors and difficulty moving in soft-release cages and post-release from field pens. One-year-old hard-release frogs had the highest total movement, net displacement, and tortuosity. These results indicate that holding Gopher Frogs longer term to a larger size may have negative outcomes because frogs behave abnormally or become deconditioned. Therefore, I recommend releasing frogs sooner rather than later until captive husbandry approaches are improved. Soft-release did reduce distances moved and the tortuosity of post-release movements, which may improve efforts to keep frogs in target areas; however, movement away from wetlands might be important for reducing predation by semiaquatic snakes.},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Crenshaw, Andie},
	month = dec,
	year = {2024},
}

Amphibian populations are declining due to habitat loss and fragmentation. The Gopher Frog (Rana capito) is an amphibian threatened by the losses of ephemeral wetlands and firemaintained, pine savanna habitat and increasing isolation among remnant populations. Gopher frogs are the focus of a growing number of captive-rearing and translocation programs in the southeast. Mortality of recently metamorphosed, captive-reared Gopher Frogs is high. It has been recommended that releasing Gopher Frogs in soft-release enclosures with artificial burrows for an acclimation period may increase survivorship. It has also been proposed that raising frogs in captivity longer to a larger size [head starting] may improve Gopher Frog post-release survival. This study follows one-year-old and two-year-old, captive-reared Gopher Frogs who were assigned to either a soft or hard-release treatment at the James W Webb Wildlife Center and Game Management Area in Hampton County, South Carolina. Soft-release frogs were held in field enclosures with artificial burrows for one month and then hard and soft-release frogs were tracked using VHF telemetry. Fate, net displacement from release points, total distance moved, and tortuosity were calculated for each frog. One-year-old Gopher Frogs had higher survivorship than two-year-old frogs. Predation by semi-aquatic snakes was the main source of mortality postrelease. Two-year-old frogs showed abnormal behaviors and difficulty moving in soft-release cages and post-release from field pens. One-year-old hard-release frogs had the highest total movement, net displacement, and tortuosity. These results indicate that holding Gopher Frogs longer term to a larger size may have negative outcomes because frogs behave abnormally or become deconditioned. Therefore, I recommend releasing frogs sooner rather than later until captive husbandry approaches are improved. Soft-release did reduce distances moved and the tortuosity of post-release movements, which may improve efforts to keep frogs in target areas; however, movement away from wetlands might be important for reducing predation by semiaquatic snakes.

@mastersthesis{bauer_understanding_2024,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	title = {Understanding the {Terrestrial} {Distribution} of {Stream}-{Breeding} {Salamanders}},
	abstract = {The abundance and terrestrial habitat use of stream-breeding salamanders are closely linked to moisture gradients in the air and soil, which in turn are shaped by local hydroclimate and hillslope hydrology. In this study we used hierarchical modeling in a Bayesian framework to integrate multiple salamander abundance datasets to estimate how moisture gradients affect spatial patterns in the terrestrial abundance of stream-breeding plethodontids. Consistent with our hypotheses, we found that salamander abundance decreased with distance from stream, increased with elevation, and was lower on south-facing slopes than north-facing slopes. Furthermore, we found an interaction between elevation and stream distance, such that salamanders were found in higher abundances further from streams at higher elevations. Our results have implications for stream ecosystem processes and regional stream zone management.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Bauer, Shelby M},
	year = {2024},
}

The abundance and terrestrial habitat use of stream-breeding salamanders are closely linked to moisture gradients in the air and soil, which in turn are shaped by local hydroclimate and hillslope hydrology. In this study we used hierarchical modeling in a Bayesian framework to integrate multiple salamander abundance datasets to estimate how moisture gradients affect spatial patterns in the terrestrial abundance of stream-breeding plethodontids. Consistent with our hypotheses, we found that salamander abundance decreased with distance from stream, increased with elevation, and was lower on south-facing slopes than north-facing slopes. Furthermore, we found an interaction between elevation and stream distance, such that salamanders were found in higher abundances further from streams at higher elevations. Our results have implications for stream ecosystem processes and regional stream zone management.

@mastersthesis{grab_estimating_2024,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	title = {Estimating {Population} {Parameters} of {Hybrid} {Salamanders} in {Response} to {Forest} {Management}},
	abstract = {A fundamental question in conservation is how animal populations dynamics, both patterns and process, respond to land management practices. The U.S. Forest Service at Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory began a paired watershed experiment where one watershed was treated with midstory shrub removal and repeated application of prescribed fire and was compared with another nearby watershed as a reference. I estimated changes in abundance, population structure, and juvenile growth and survival of hybrid salamanders (Plethodon spp.) between the two watersheds using a hierarchical and integrated modelling approach. Consistent with my hypothesis, hatchling and juvenile salamanders experienced stronger negative effects of management actions on abundance than subadults or adults. I found weak evidence for a small, negative effect of treatment on growth but a small, positive effect on survival; however, these results are unreliable due to bias. This thesis provides a starting point for future research and understanding of this salamander population.},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Grab, Kirstine M.},
	year = {2024},
}

A fundamental question in conservation is how animal populations dynamics, both patterns and process, respond to land management practices. The U.S. Forest Service at Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory began a paired watershed experiment where one watershed was treated with midstory shrub removal and repeated application of prescribed fire and was compared with another nearby watershed as a reference. I estimated changes in abundance, population structure, and juvenile growth and survival of hybrid salamanders (Plethodon spp.) between the two watersheds using a hierarchical and integrated modelling approach. Consistent with my hypothesis, hatchling and juvenile salamanders experienced stronger negative effects of management actions on abundance than subadults or adults. I found weak evidence for a small, negative effect of treatment on growth but a small, positive effect on survival; however, these results are unreliable due to bias. This thesis provides a starting point for future research and understanding of this salamander population.

@phdthesis{carter_impact_2023,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	type = {Ph.{D}. {Dissertation}},
	title = {Impact of {Introgression} on the {Distribution} of {Traits} {Across} an {Appalachian} {Salamander} {Hybrid} {Zone}},
	abstract = {Hybrid zones provide a unique opportunity to untangle evolutionary mechanisms and challenge the way we think about biological and genetic diversity. Studies of hybrid zones can provide valuable insight into the dynamics and interactions that shape a variety of systems. Moreover, hybrid zones and hybrid lineages may themselves play an important role in the preservation and enhancement of adaptive potential in populations and communities under changing conditions. In this dissertation, I identify and characterize patterns in the distribution of traits across a Plethodon hybrid zone. In Chapter 2, I explore how climate has influenced the distribution of genomic and phenotypic traits of a P. shermani and P. teyahalee hybrid zone across a spatially complex hydroclimate gradient in the Coweeta basin. Chapter 3 examines the extent to which P. teyahalee, P. shermani, and hybrids in the Coweeta basin exhibit behavioral differences regarding their allocations of time to activities on the surface versus those occurring belowground. I explore how patterns in behavior relate to hybrid index and weather across this system. In Chapter 4 I compare the physiological traits among P. teyahalee, P. shermani, and hybrid and explore the factors that influence rates of cutaneous water loss. Finally, in Chapter 5 I compare patterns in body size linked to demography and water loss and identify climatic and topographic variables that may be influencing patterns in morphology across this hybrid zone. Insights from this research will enable us to better understand the ecological and evolutionary processes that structure this system and improve our ability to make predictions about how lineage dynamics may shift in the future.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Carter, Cynthia M},
	year = {2023},
}

Hybrid zones provide a unique opportunity to untangle evolutionary mechanisms and challenge the way we think about biological and genetic diversity. Studies of hybrid zones can provide valuable insight into the dynamics and interactions that shape a variety of systems. Moreover, hybrid zones and hybrid lineages may themselves play an important role in the preservation and enhancement of adaptive potential in populations and communities under changing conditions. In this dissertation, I identify and characterize patterns in the distribution of traits across a Plethodon hybrid zone. In Chapter 2, I explore how climate has influenced the distribution of genomic and phenotypic traits of a P. shermani and P. teyahalee hybrid zone across a spatially complex hydroclimate gradient in the Coweeta basin. Chapter 3 examines the extent to which P. teyahalee, P. shermani, and hybrids in the Coweeta basin exhibit behavioral differences regarding their allocations of time to activities on the surface versus those occurring belowground. I explore how patterns in behavior relate to hybrid index and weather across this system. In Chapter 4 I compare the physiological traits among P. teyahalee, P. shermani, and hybrid and explore the factors that influence rates of cutaneous water loss. Finally, in Chapter 5 I compare patterns in body size linked to demography and water loss and identify climatic and topographic variables that may be influencing patterns in morphology across this hybrid zone. Insights from this research will enable us to better understand the ecological and evolutionary processes that structure this system and improve our ability to make predictions about how lineage dynamics may shift in the future.

@phdthesis{bradke_population_2023,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	type = {Ph.{D}. {Dissertation}},
	title = {Population {Modeling} to {Inform} {Monitoring} and {Management} of {Herpetofauna} in the {Southeastern} {United} {States}},
	abstract = {Designing monitoring with adequate certainty to meet management objectives can be challenging for difficult-to-detect species. Many species of herpetofauna are particularly difficult to detect because of cryptic behavior and inaccessible habitat components. Despite challenges, monitoring is necessary to understand the status of populations and effectively apply and evaluate management. In this dissertation, I use population modeling to inform monitoring and management of diamond-backed terrapins (Malaclemys terrapin) and terrestrial salamanders (Genus Plethodon, Family Plethodontidae) in the southeastern United States. In chapter 2, I use population models and simulations to assess the ability of a common monitoring approach using seining capture-recapture methods to detect a change in diamond-backed terrapin survival, determine how detection of the change in survival varies under three thresholds of certainty that could be adopted by managers, and examine how the monitoring design can be improved to increase detection of the change in survival. In chapter 3, I investigate the capacity and practicality of using repeated counts of diamond-backed terrapins and N-mixture models to meet large-scale monitoring needs and inform management objectives in salt marsh environments. In chapter 4, I leverage an extensive five-year capture-recapture dataset of nesting diamond-backed terrapins collected as part of the Skidaway Audubon Diamondback Terrapin Rescue Project to obtain estimates of nesting frequency and values of clutch size for Georgia terrapins. Using this information, I update previous projections of population growth and persistence to help managers make more informed decisions about resource allocation. In chapter 5, I present a case study of terrestrial salamanders to demonstrate how using a hierarchical sampling and modeling approach can improve abundance estimates for species that spend substantial time unavailable for capture (e.g., below ground). Additionally, I demonstrate how integrated models can be used to leverage data from other studies to improve estimates of abundance and management effects. Results of this research can be used to improve monitoring and management for these species. This work can also be used as an example of how to address uncertainty in monitoring and how to design monitoring to meet management objectives in other challenging-to-detect species.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Bradke, Danielle R},
	year = {2023},
}

Designing monitoring with adequate certainty to meet management objectives can be challenging for difficult-to-detect species. Many species of herpetofauna are particularly difficult to detect because of cryptic behavior and inaccessible habitat components. Despite challenges, monitoring is necessary to understand the status of populations and effectively apply and evaluate management. In this dissertation, I use population modeling to inform monitoring and management of diamond-backed terrapins (Malaclemys terrapin) and terrestrial salamanders (Genus Plethodon, Family Plethodontidae) in the southeastern United States. In chapter 2, I use population models and simulations to assess the ability of a common monitoring approach using seining capture-recapture methods to detect a change in diamond-backed terrapin survival, determine how detection of the change in survival varies under three thresholds of certainty that could be adopted by managers, and examine how the monitoring design can be improved to increase detection of the change in survival. In chapter 3, I investigate the capacity and practicality of using repeated counts of diamond-backed terrapins and N-mixture models to meet large-scale monitoring needs and inform management objectives in salt marsh environments. In chapter 4, I leverage an extensive five-year capture-recapture dataset of nesting diamond-backed terrapins collected as part of the Skidaway Audubon Diamondback Terrapin Rescue Project to obtain estimates of nesting frequency and values of clutch size for Georgia terrapins. Using this information, I update previous projections of population growth and persistence to help managers make more informed decisions about resource allocation. In chapter 5, I present a case study of terrestrial salamanders to demonstrate how using a hierarchical sampling and modeling approach can improve abundance estimates for species that spend substantial time unavailable for capture (e.g., below ground). Additionally, I demonstrate how integrated models can be used to leverage data from other studies to improve estimates of abundance and management effects. Results of this research can be used to improve monitoring and management for these species. This work can also be used as an example of how to address uncertainty in monitoring and how to design monitoring to meet management objectives in other challenging-to-detect species.

@mastersthesis{brown_if_2023,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	title = {If {You} {Build} {It}, {Will} {They} {Come}? {Estimating} {Squamate} {Responses} to {Pine} {Savanna} {Restoration}},
	abstract = {Herpetofauna are notoriously difficult to monitor, and efficient monitoring techniques for these species are desperately needed to inform management actions. I evaluated the effectiveness of wildlife cameras for detecting two representative species of herpetofauna (snakes and frogs) and determined the influence of individual characteristics on detectability. I used these results to develop a series of wildlife camera arrays to monitor the impact of pine savanna restoration on the squamate community at Alapaha River Wildlife Management Area (ARWMA), which has resident populations of several snakes identified as species of greatest conservation need in Georgia’s State Wildlife Action Plan. Wildlife cameras were 7 times more efficient at detecting herpetofauna than traditional survey methods; however, detection rates varied between models and depended on surface temperature differential and, in some cases, body size. The response of squamates to restoration actions on ARWMA and the temporal scale at which these responses became evident appeared to be highly species dependent.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Brown, Alexandra},
	year = {2023},
}

Herpetofauna are notoriously difficult to monitor, and efficient monitoring techniques for these species are desperately needed to inform management actions. I evaluated the effectiveness of wildlife cameras for detecting two representative species of herpetofauna (snakes and frogs) and determined the influence of individual characteristics on detectability. I used these results to develop a series of wildlife camera arrays to monitor the impact of pine savanna restoration on the squamate community at Alapaha River Wildlife Management Area (ARWMA), which has resident populations of several snakes identified as species of greatest conservation need in Georgia’s State Wildlife Action Plan. Wildlife cameras were 7 times more efficient at detecting herpetofauna than traditional survey methods; however, detection rates varied between models and depended on surface temperature differential and, in some cases, body size. The response of squamates to restoration actions on ARWMA and the temporal scale at which these responses became evident appeared to be highly species dependent.

@mastersthesis{thesing_using_2023,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	title = {Using an {Agent}-{Based} {Modeling} {Approach} to {Describe} {Juvenile} {Gopher} {Frog} ({Rana} capito) movemeent patterns an inform future reintroduction strategies},
	abstract = {The gopher frog (Rana capito) is listed as a Species of Greatest Conservation Need in all states in which it occurs and is currently petitioned to be listed under the Endangered Species Act. Efforts to conserve and manage this species have focused on wetland restoration, population monitoring, and captive-rearing for reintroduction. We conducted radiotelemetry on captivereared juveniles to parameterize an agent-based model that simulates juvenile gopher frog movement. We fit the model to observed data by adjusting a gopher tortoise burrow detection parameter and comparing the distributions of net-displacement distances from modelled individuals and those from tracked individuals. Net-displacement distributions corresponding to a burrow detection radius of 1 meter were not different from observed data (p {\textgreater} .05). We used this movement model to predict landscape connectivity of gopher frogs based on burrow location and suitable habitat on Alapaha River Wildlife Management Area to inform future reintroduction strategies.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Thesing, Benjamin Joseph},
	year = {2023},
}

The gopher frog (Rana capito) is listed as a Species of Greatest Conservation Need in all states in which it occurs and is currently petitioned to be listed under the Endangered Species Act. Efforts to conserve and manage this species have focused on wetland restoration, population monitoring, and captive-rearing for reintroduction. We conducted radiotelemetry on captivereared juveniles to parameterize an agent-based model that simulates juvenile gopher frog movement. We fit the model to observed data by adjusting a gopher tortoise burrow detection parameter and comparing the distributions of net-displacement distances from modelled individuals and those from tracked individuals. Net-displacement distributions corresponding to a burrow detection radius of 1 meter were not different from observed data (p \textgreater .05). We used this movement model to predict landscape connectivity of gopher frogs based on burrow location and suitable habitat on Alapaha River Wildlife Management Area to inform future reintroduction strategies.

@phdthesis{scott_parameter_2022,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	type = {Senior {Thesis}},
	title = {Parameter {Estimation} for a {Declining}, {Elusive} {Species}},
	abstract = {One of the primary mechanisms to evaluate the population status and determine the effectiveness of management actions is the use of population viability models (PVAs). PVAs depend on the quality of demographic data, which are often not known for focal populations and therefore “borrowed” from other studies or estimated by expert opinion. Recent PVAs to estimate the status and management effects on Diamondback Terrapins, Malaclemys terrapin, in Georgia assume that terrapins nest twice per year and lay approximately 7 eggs per clutch. However, there are anecdotal reports of higher nesting frequency suggest that current PVA estimates are pessimistic. We used 7 years of citizen science data from the Skidaway Audubon Diamondback Terrapin Project of nesting on Skidaway Island to describe the naïve fecundity of the population and reevaluate a previously published PVA. Mean clutch size was 8.5 eggs per clutch, and the mean number of observed nesting events per year per female was 2.1, with 32\% of females observed nesting 3 or more times in a single year and a maximum of 6 nesting events in a single season. Persistence probability increased between 32\% and 216\% for all management scenarios of the PVA. The distribution of days between nesting events showed a strong right skew that indicates a high likelihood that many nesting events are not observed and the true mean nesting frequency is significantly greater than the naïve estimate. These observations indicate that current fecundity estimates for Diamondback Terrapins in Georgia are likely too low and models are underestimating population growth and persistence.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Scott, C Dare},
	year = {2022},
}

One of the primary mechanisms to evaluate the population status and determine the effectiveness of management actions is the use of population viability models (PVAs). PVAs depend on the quality of demographic data, which are often not known for focal populations and therefore “borrowed” from other studies or estimated by expert opinion. Recent PVAs to estimate the status and management effects on Diamondback Terrapins, Malaclemys terrapin, in Georgia assume that terrapins nest twice per year and lay approximately 7 eggs per clutch. However, there are anecdotal reports of higher nesting frequency suggest that current PVA estimates are pessimistic. We used 7 years of citizen science data from the Skidaway Audubon Diamondback Terrapin Project of nesting on Skidaway Island to describe the naïve fecundity of the population and reevaluate a previously published PVA. Mean clutch size was 8.5 eggs per clutch, and the mean number of observed nesting events per year per female was 2.1, with 32% of females observed nesting 3 or more times in a single year and a maximum of 6 nesting events in a single season. Persistence probability increased between 32% and 216% for all management scenarios of the PVA. The distribution of days between nesting events showed a strong right skew that indicates a high likelihood that many nesting events are not observed and the true mean nesting frequency is significantly greater than the naïve estimate. These observations indicate that current fecundity estimates for Diamondback Terrapins in Georgia are likely too low and models are underestimating population growth and persistence.

@phdthesis{hutcheson_origin_2021,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	type = {Senior {Thesis}},
	title = {The {Origin} and {Ecology} of a {Likely} {Introduced} {Population} of {Black}-bellied {Salamander} ({Desmognathus} quadramaculatus)},
	abstract = {Invasive species can pose threats to native species and are seen as a leading cause for global biodiversity declines. Introduced species can quickly become invasive species without early detection and monitoring, which can be done through phylogenetics and population modeling. In March of 2019, we discovered an isolated population of black-bellied salamanders (Desmognathus quadramaculatus) approximately 30 km southwest of their known range. We used sequencing of two mitochondrial genes to determine the origin of this newly discovered population. We then used a capture-mark-recapture survey to estimate the population size and a lavage study to contrast the introduced population’s diet to published studies of D. quadramaculatus within its native range within the Blue Ridge. The population estimate was 39 adults which seemed too high to be only surviving members of an introduction event, and we observed all life stages of the species (larvae, juveniles, and adults), suggesting that population is reproducing and likely recruiting at the site. We documented several prey items in D. quadramaculatus diets that were not reported in studies from the native range but have been reported in diets studies of smaller dusky species closely related to native species in the region. We hypothesize that this D. quadramaculatus population was likely introduced via the bait trade, has grown since introduction, and is consuming resources likely utilized by native salamanders. Given its small size, managers could consider removing the population, or the population could be used for research provided the site and nearby sites are monitored closely to limit the potential for spread.  The apparent establishment of this population highlights the importance of monitoring the sale of live bait and promoting safe bait disposal to prevent introductions that could lead to invasive populations.},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Hutcheson, Kevin G.},
	year = {2021},
}

Invasive species can pose threats to native species and are seen as a leading cause for global biodiversity declines. Introduced species can quickly become invasive species without early detection and monitoring, which can be done through phylogenetics and population modeling. In March of 2019, we discovered an isolated population of black-bellied salamanders (Desmognathus quadramaculatus) approximately 30 km southwest of their known range. We used sequencing of two mitochondrial genes to determine the origin of this newly discovered population. We then used a capture-mark-recapture survey to estimate the population size and a lavage study to contrast the introduced population’s diet to published studies of D. quadramaculatus within its native range within the Blue Ridge. The population estimate was 39 adults which seemed too high to be only surviving members of an introduction event, and we observed all life stages of the species (larvae, juveniles, and adults), suggesting that population is reproducing and likely recruiting at the site. We documented several prey items in D. quadramaculatus diets that were not reported in studies from the native range but have been reported in diets studies of smaller dusky species closely related to native species in the region. We hypothesize that this D. quadramaculatus population was likely introduced via the bait trade, has grown since introduction, and is consuming resources likely utilized by native salamanders. Given its small size, managers could consider removing the population, or the population could be used for research provided the site and nearby sites are monitored closely to limit the potential for spread. The apparent establishment of this population highlights the importance of monitoring the sale of live bait and promoting safe bait disposal to prevent introductions that could lead to invasive populations.

@phdthesis{burrow_plants_2021,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	type = {Ph.{D}. {Dissertation}},
	title = {Plants {Matter}: {How} {Human}-{Driven} {Changes} to {Terrestrial} and {Wetland} {Vegetation} {May} {Impact} {Priority} {Amphibian} {Specoies} in {Southeastern} {Pine} {Savannas}},
	abstract = {Plants are foundational components of ecosystems that have large effects on the composition and abundance of animal communities. The objectives of this dissertation were to synthesize the literature demonstrating effects of plants on pond-breeding amphibians and test specific mechanisms by which plants affect amphibian performance specifically related to management actions. In chapter 2, I synthesized the available literature on the influence of plants on pond-breeding amphibian ecology in aquatic and terrestrial environments. While the literature is biased toward pond-breeding amphibians in North America and Europe, I made the case that variation in plant communities is often a strong yet overlooked gradient driving variation in amphibian ecology. In chapter 3, I utilized an aquatic mesocosm study to investigate the impact of wetland succession, via changes in light and detritus quality, on two amphibian species of conservation concern. This work demonstrated that wetland succession in southeastern pine savannas may significantly reduce juvenile amphibian recruitment and emerging juveniles may be delayed and smaller. In chapter 4, using a terrestrial mesocosm study I found that historical legacies of disturbance, low coverage of native wiregrass (Aristida spp.) and high abundance of predacious ants reduced survival of juvenile amphibians. This work is one of few studies focusing on how plant communities can moderate predation risk of juvenile amphibians. Additionally, we established that Dorymyrmex ant predation is a risk to small vertebrates within southeastern pine savannas with histories of significant soil disturbance. In chapter 5, I explored how ground vegetation and the availability of terrestrial refugia may affect survival and terrestrial distributions of juvenile Gopher frogs (Rana capito) under two weather regimes. My model suggested that the effects of ground cover could improve juvenile amphibian survival, but this potential effect was sensitive to model parameters including assumptions about frog behavior, the availability of refugia, and weather conditions. Despite its complexity, my model identified outstanding knowledge gaps in amphibian biology; mechanistic research including behavioral studies of frog microhabitat resource selection will enable future model refinement to predict the effects of fine-scale habitat change. Collectively, this work supports management efforts to evaluate vegetation management approaches for priority amphibian species.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Burrow, Angela Kay},
	year = {2021},
}

Plants are foundational components of ecosystems that have large effects on the composition and abundance of animal communities. The objectives of this dissertation were to synthesize the literature demonstrating effects of plants on pond-breeding amphibians and test specific mechanisms by which plants affect amphibian performance specifically related to management actions. In chapter 2, I synthesized the available literature on the influence of plants on pond-breeding amphibian ecology in aquatic and terrestrial environments. While the literature is biased toward pond-breeding amphibians in North America and Europe, I made the case that variation in plant communities is often a strong yet overlooked gradient driving variation in amphibian ecology. In chapter 3, I utilized an aquatic mesocosm study to investigate the impact of wetland succession, via changes in light and detritus quality, on two amphibian species of conservation concern. This work demonstrated that wetland succession in southeastern pine savannas may significantly reduce juvenile amphibian recruitment and emerging juveniles may be delayed and smaller. In chapter 4, using a terrestrial mesocosm study I found that historical legacies of disturbance, low coverage of native wiregrass (Aristida spp.) and high abundance of predacious ants reduced survival of juvenile amphibians. This work is one of few studies focusing on how plant communities can moderate predation risk of juvenile amphibians. Additionally, we established that Dorymyrmex ant predation is a risk to small vertebrates within southeastern pine savannas with histories of significant soil disturbance. In chapter 5, I explored how ground vegetation and the availability of terrestrial refugia may affect survival and terrestrial distributions of juvenile Gopher frogs (Rana capito) under two weather regimes. My model suggested that the effects of ground cover could improve juvenile amphibian survival, but this potential effect was sensitive to model parameters including assumptions about frog behavior, the availability of refugia, and weather conditions. Despite its complexity, my model identified outstanding knowledge gaps in amphibian biology; mechanistic research including behavioral studies of frog microhabitat resource selection will enable future model refinement to predict the effects of fine-scale habitat change. Collectively, this work supports management efforts to evaluate vegetation management approaches for priority amphibian species.

@phdthesis{marshall_gopher_2021,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	type = {Ph.{D}. {Dissertation}},
	title = {Gopher {Tortoise} ({Gopherus} polyphemus) ecology within a private, working forest landscape},
	abstract = {Uncertainty exists regarding the status of gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) populations range wide. This uncertainty and the recent proposal by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service to reevaluate the species’ designation (i.e., threatened) has stimulated research aimed at identifying tortoise population demographics and viability, movement patterns, and habitat associations throughout its range. Private, working forest landscapes are ubiquitous across the tortoises’ range and populations are known to inhabit and persist within these forests, warranting their integration into tortoise conservation strategies. However, this can be difficult, as there is an incomplete understanding of how tortoises interact with these landscapes. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to estimate abandoned and active tortoise burrow density, evaluate tortoise use, and identify vertebrate burrow commensals within a private, working forest landscape dominated by planted loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) and located in the Upper Coastal Plain ecoregion of Georgia, USA. Results from my study indicate that permanently open areas, such as forest roads and utility rights-of-way, and forest stands characterized by early successional vegetation conditions may interact to support tortoise populations within these landscapes. My results also indicate that the adoption of spatially explicit distance sampling models can improve our understanding of the factors influencing tortoise density, such as distance to roads, that are difficult to quantify using standard distance sampling methods. Furthermore, I documented similar use of abandoned, active, and inactive tortoise burrows by vertebrate commensals, indicating the importance of maintaining these structures on the landscape regardless of classification.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Marshall, Craig Daniel},
	year = {2021},
}

Uncertainty exists regarding the status of gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) populations range wide. This uncertainty and the recent proposal by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service to reevaluate the species’ designation (i.e., threatened) has stimulated research aimed at identifying tortoise population demographics and viability, movement patterns, and habitat associations throughout its range. Private, working forest landscapes are ubiquitous across the tortoises’ range and populations are known to inhabit and persist within these forests, warranting their integration into tortoise conservation strategies. However, this can be difficult, as there is an incomplete understanding of how tortoises interact with these landscapes. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to estimate abandoned and active tortoise burrow density, evaluate tortoise use, and identify vertebrate burrow commensals within a private, working forest landscape dominated by planted loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) and located in the Upper Coastal Plain ecoregion of Georgia, USA. Results from my study indicate that permanently open areas, such as forest roads and utility rights-of-way, and forest stands characterized by early successional vegetation conditions may interact to support tortoise populations within these landscapes. My results also indicate that the adoption of spatially explicit distance sampling models can improve our understanding of the factors influencing tortoise density, such as distance to roads, that are difficult to quantify using standard distance sampling methods. Furthermore, I documented similar use of abandoned, active, and inactive tortoise burrows by vertebrate commensals, indicating the importance of maintaining these structures on the landscape regardless of classification.

@phdthesis{robinson_estimating_2021,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	type = {Senior {Thesis}},
	title = {Estimating {Anuran} {Occupancy} in {Response} to {Habitat} {Restoration}},
	abstract = {Restoration efforts are constantly being updated and adapted through the research and monitoring of ecosystems. The restoration of the longleaf pine ecosystem has been a priority for multiple states in the southeastern United States including Georgia. Since 2017, wetlands within the longleaf pine ecosystem have been monitored using acoustic recording devices to study how anuran populations have responded before and after the implementation of restoration efforts. Using this audio detection data, I created dynamic occupancy models to test whether a select group of anuran populations have responded in the short-term to restoration efforts, as well as if these populations show sympatric tendencies with populations of Tiger salamanders.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Robinson, Samuel M},
	year = {2021},
}

Restoration efforts are constantly being updated and adapted through the research and monitoring of ecosystems. The restoration of the longleaf pine ecosystem has been a priority for multiple states in the southeastern United States including Georgia. Since 2017, wetlands within the longleaf pine ecosystem have been monitored using acoustic recording devices to study how anuran populations have responded before and after the implementation of restoration efforts. Using this audio detection data, I created dynamic occupancy models to test whether a select group of anuran populations have responded in the short-term to restoration efforts, as well as if these populations show sympatric tendencies with populations of Tiger salamanders.

@phdthesis{golden_detectability_2020,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	type = {Senior {Thesis}},
	title = {The {Detectability} of {Eastern} {Box} {Turtles}: {Implications} for {Reptile} {Disease} {Detection} and {Surveillance}},
	abstract = {The ability to estimate population abundance or survey populations for disease is heavily dependent on estimating the detection of available animals during intentional surveillance efforts or through opportunistic encounters. For reptiles and amphibians, the likelihood of detecting individuals is low due to their small sizes, cryptic behavior, and ability to camouflage naturally. We examined the detectability of the Eastern Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina) using distance to line sampling of 3-dimensional printed models along a 1 km forest transect. Each model was situated along the transect using a stratified random design of distance from the transect and whether the model was “fully exposed”, “partially covered”, or “fully covered”. We included surveyor self-reported level of experience sampling for wildlife, reptiles, and Box Turtles as additional covariates, as well as total observer pace (time to complete the transect). Detection of Box Turtles was highest directly on the transect but was not perfect and declined dramatically more than 1 meter from the transect. Whether the model was partially or fully covered by leaf litter also significantly reduced detection. Detection was not different among individuals who self-reported as “professional”, “pro-in-training”, “amateur”, or “novice” but did increase with and increasingly slower pace. Our results demonstrate that detection of Box Turtles during deliberate surveys is generally poor and not related to observer experience, suggesting that effective detection of animals for population studies or disease surveillance will be challenging.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Golden, Taylor},
	year = {2020},
}

The ability to estimate population abundance or survey populations for disease is heavily dependent on estimating the detection of available animals during intentional surveillance efforts or through opportunistic encounters. For reptiles and amphibians, the likelihood of detecting individuals is low due to their small sizes, cryptic behavior, and ability to camouflage naturally. We examined the detectability of the Eastern Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina) using distance to line sampling of 3-dimensional printed models along a 1 km forest transect. Each model was situated along the transect using a stratified random design of distance from the transect and whether the model was “fully exposed”, “partially covered”, or “fully covered”. We included surveyor self-reported level of experience sampling for wildlife, reptiles, and Box Turtles as additional covariates, as well as total observer pace (time to complete the transect). Detection of Box Turtles was highest directly on the transect but was not perfect and declined dramatically more than 1 meter from the transect. Whether the model was partially or fully covered by leaf litter also significantly reduced detection. Detection was not different among individuals who self-reported as “professional”, “pro-in-training”, “amateur”, or “novice” but did increase with and increasingly slower pace. Our results demonstrate that detection of Box Turtles during deliberate surveys is generally poor and not related to observer experience, suggesting that effective detection of animals for population studies or disease surveillance will be challenging.

@mastersthesis{gardner_effect_2020,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	title = {Effect of {Food} {Distribution} on {Resource} {Selection} of a {Predator} and {Prey}},
	abstract = {Management actions that alter the dispersion of food resources may alter target and non-target species resource selection. We used radio telemetry to determine how supplemental feeding of Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) may alter their resource selection and that of Timber rattlesnakes (Crotalus horridus) and Black rat snakes (Pantherophis obsoletus). We compared 2nd and 3rd order resource selection of each species between treatment areas with stocked supplemental feeders (“feeder-fed”) and empty feeders (“unfed”) or supplemental feedlines (“broadcast-fed”). The effects of food distribution were equivocal for Black rat snakes. Timber rattlesnakes and bobwhites occurred closer to supplemental feed when available, but bobwhites were more strongly affected by filled feeders than empty feeders or feedlines, and Timber rattlesnakes established their home ranges near feedlines than feeders. These results demonstrate that different distributions of food resources can affect both target prey and non-target predator behavior, unintentionally increasing spatial overlap between predator and prey species.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Gardner, Rachel},
	year = {2020},
}

Management actions that alter the dispersion of food resources may alter target and non-target species resource selection. We used radio telemetry to determine how supplemental feeding of Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) may alter their resource selection and that of Timber rattlesnakes (Crotalus horridus) and Black rat snakes (Pantherophis obsoletus). We compared 2nd and 3rd order resource selection of each species between treatment areas with stocked supplemental feeders (“feeder-fed”) and empty feeders (“unfed”) or supplemental feedlines (“broadcast-fed”). The effects of food distribution were equivocal for Black rat snakes. Timber rattlesnakes and bobwhites occurred closer to supplemental feed when available, but bobwhites were more strongly affected by filled feeders than empty feeders or feedlines, and Timber rattlesnakes established their home ranges near feedlines than feeders. These results demonstrate that different distributions of food resources can affect both target prey and non-target predator behavior, unintentionally increasing spatial overlap between predator and prey species.

@phdthesis{head_short-term_2020,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	type = {Senior {Thesis}},
	title = {Short-term responses of plethodontid salamanders to the restoration of prescribed fire within the {Coweeta} {Hydrologic} {Laboratory}},
	abstract = {Fire is an important natural disturbance event that shapes vegetation and animal communities throughout the United States, however historical fire suppression has led to changes in vegetation structure that include increased mid and understory vegetation that can contribute to more intense wildfires. As prescribed fire is increasingly being utilized as a management tool to restore the southern Appalachians and reduce wildfire risk, populations of regionally abundant and diverse species that are more dependent on current vegetation structure may be experiencing associated population shifts. Human alteration of fire regimes in this region coupled with a changing climate may be causing associated declines in species such as terrestrial salamanders in the family Plethodontidae that are likely to be disproportionately affected by fire disturbances due to their lungless anatomy and reliance on cool moist microhabitats. We monitored microhabitat usage as well as short term age specific salamander abundance before and after a prescribed burn in the Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory located in Otto, North Carolina by using body size measurements and documenting microhabitat during repeated count surveys. We also developed a novel means of incorporating vegetation influence on detection probability of salamanders that were incorporated into our abundance models. We observed notable declines in abundance of all age classes as a result of the prescribed burn as well as shifts in burrow occupancy as a result of the burn by plethodontid salamanders. We were also successfully able to incorporate variations in detection as a result of burning conditions into our abundance estimates. Our results suggest that prescribed burns, coupled with shifts in abiotic factors such as vapor pressure, may be causing associated decreases in surface activity, shifts in microhabitat use as a result of stress, and declines in abundance of plethodontid salamanders. These results reinforce the need to continue to monitor the impacts of fire management and associated disturbance on terrestrial salamander populations.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Head, Lauren},
	year = {2020},
}

Fire is an important natural disturbance event that shapes vegetation and animal communities throughout the United States, however historical fire suppression has led to changes in vegetation structure that include increased mid and understory vegetation that can contribute to more intense wildfires. As prescribed fire is increasingly being utilized as a management tool to restore the southern Appalachians and reduce wildfire risk, populations of regionally abundant and diverse species that are more dependent on current vegetation structure may be experiencing associated population shifts. Human alteration of fire regimes in this region coupled with a changing climate may be causing associated declines in species such as terrestrial salamanders in the family Plethodontidae that are likely to be disproportionately affected by fire disturbances due to their lungless anatomy and reliance on cool moist microhabitats. We monitored microhabitat usage as well as short term age specific salamander abundance before and after a prescribed burn in the Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory located in Otto, North Carolina by using body size measurements and documenting microhabitat during repeated count surveys. We also developed a novel means of incorporating vegetation influence on detection probability of salamanders that were incorporated into our abundance models. We observed notable declines in abundance of all age classes as a result of the prescribed burn as well as shifts in burrow occupancy as a result of the burn by plethodontid salamanders. We were also successfully able to incorporate variations in detection as a result of burning conditions into our abundance estimates. Our results suggest that prescribed burns, coupled with shifts in abiotic factors such as vapor pressure, may be causing associated decreases in surface activity, shifts in microhabitat use as a result of stress, and declines in abundance of plethodontid salamanders. These results reinforce the need to continue to monitor the impacts of fire management and associated disturbance on terrestrial salamander populations.

@mastersthesis{cork_modeling_2019,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	title = {Modeling {Occupancy} and {Habitat} {Suitability} to {Guide} {Management} for the {Gopher} {Frog} ({Rana} capito) in {South} {Georgia}},
	abstract = {The Gopher frog (Rana capito), a species of concern in Georgia, has suffered population declines corresponding with the loss and alteration of southeastern Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) ecosystems. Identifying habitat associations and remaining suitable habitat for the Gopher frog are essential first steps for implementing effective conservation management to sustain the species. In this study, I investigated Gopher frog anuran occupancy among ponds within the Alapaha River Wildlife Management Area (ARWMA) using automated recording devices, dipnetting surveys, and egg mass surveys. I modeled detection rates and occupancy for the Gopher frog and a suite of winter-breeding anurans as a function of hydroperiod and canopy cover. I tested a technique to evaluate wetland hydroperiods of herbaceous and forested wetlands at ARWMA using a data set developed from Landsat imagery, and I developed a habitat suitability model that uses wetland and upland habitat attributes to identify potential breeding ponds for Gopher frogs at ARWMA.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Cork, Erin},
	year = {2019},
}

The Gopher frog (Rana capito), a species of concern in Georgia, has suffered population declines corresponding with the loss and alteration of southeastern Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) ecosystems. Identifying habitat associations and remaining suitable habitat for the Gopher frog are essential first steps for implementing effective conservation management to sustain the species. In this study, I investigated Gopher frog anuran occupancy among ponds within the Alapaha River Wildlife Management Area (ARWMA) using automated recording devices, dipnetting surveys, and egg mass surveys. I modeled detection rates and occupancy for the Gopher frog and a suite of winter-breeding anurans as a function of hydroperiod and canopy cover. I tested a technique to evaluate wetland hydroperiods of herbaceous and forested wetlands at ARWMA using a data set developed from Landsat imagery, and I developed a habitat suitability model that uses wetland and upland habitat attributes to identify potential breeding ponds for Gopher frogs at ARWMA.

@mastersthesis{hunt_improving_2019,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	title = {Improving {Monitoring} and {Habitat} {Assessment} for {Gopher} {Frog} ({Rana} [{Lithobates}] capito) {Management} in {Georgia}},
	abstract = {The Gopher Frog (Rana [Lithobates] capito) is a species of greatest conservation need in Georgia. Monitoring is needed to determine population status and evaluate management actions, but monitoring efforts are limited by low detectability. I evaluated effectiveness of an active infrared camera system to detect juvenile Gopher Frogs, and used radio-telemetry data to parameterize a random walk model to estimate the probability that juvenile Gopher Frogs may be dispersing beyond the boundaries of the Sandhills Wildlife Management Area (SWMA), which is a key site for Gopher Frog conservation in Georgia. Camera detection rates of individual frogs were greater than 90\% indicating that the camera system is efficient at monitoring anurans. Juvenile survival was low at SWMA due to predation. Though only a single frog was tracked beyond the WMA boundary, the random walk model predicted a 19.6\% chance that a juvenile Gopher Frog may disperse off the WMA property.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Hunt, James Daniel},
	year = {2019},
}

The Gopher Frog (Rana [Lithobates] capito) is a species of greatest conservation need in Georgia. Monitoring is needed to determine population status and evaluate management actions, but monitoring efforts are limited by low detectability. I evaluated effectiveness of an active infrared camera system to detect juvenile Gopher Frogs, and used radio-telemetry data to parameterize a random walk model to estimate the probability that juvenile Gopher Frogs may be dispersing beyond the boundaries of the Sandhills Wildlife Management Area (SWMA), which is a key site for Gopher Frog conservation in Georgia. Camera detection rates of individual frogs were greater than 90% indicating that the camera system is efficient at monitoring anurans. Juvenile survival was low at SWMA due to predation. Though only a single frog was tracked beyond the WMA boundary, the random walk model predicted a 19.6% chance that a juvenile Gopher Frog may disperse off the WMA property.

@phdthesis{clause_multi-national_2018,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	type = {Ph.{D}. {Dissertation}},
	title = {Multi-{National} {Conservation} of {Alligator} {Lizards}: {Applied} {Socioecological} {Lessons} from a {Flagship} {Group}},
	abstract = {The Anthropocene is defined by unprecedented human influence on the biosphere. Integrative conservation recognizes this inextricable coupling of human and natural systems, and mobilizes multiple epistemologies to seek equitable, enduring solutions to complex socioecological issues. Although a central motivation of global conservation practice is to protect at-risk species, such organisms may be the subject of competing social perspectives that can impede robust interventions. Furthermore, imperiled species are often chronically understudied, which prevents the immediate application of data-driven quantitative modeling approaches in conservation decision making. Instead, real-world management goals are regularly prioritized on the basis of expert opinion. Here, I explore how an organismal natural history perspective, when grounded in a critique of established human judgements, can help resolve socioecological conflicts and contextualize perceived threats related to threatened species conservation and policy development. To achieve this, I leverage a multi-national system anchored by a diverse, enigmatic, and often endangered New World clade: alligator lizards. Using a threat analysis and status assessment, I show that one recent petition to list a California alligator lizard, Elgaria panamintina, under the US Endangered Species Act often contradicts the best available science. Building on this analysis, I also provide empirical evidence that the multi-species petition model under which Elgaria panamintina was proposed is problematic, thus corroborating claims made by the US Fish and Wildlife Service in their recent policy decision to ban such petitions. Shifting to Mesoamerica, I use global and regional status listings, distribution data, and a preliminary protected area gap analysis to show that an entire genus of alligator lizards (Abronia) is warranted for recognition as a flagship, despite conflicting social views toward the lizards. I supplement this finding with novel radio telemetry data on Abronia graminea, which reveals their strong arboreality, generalist forest habitat use, and adaptability to forest disturbance. Finally, I provide a checklist and bilingual dichotomous key for all 29 species of Abronia, and offer best-practice solutions to broader species identification problems in understudied regions of the world. My findings challenge conventional wisdom in this system, and showcase lessons of broad relevance to applied conservation that account for social and biological linkages.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Clause, Adam G},
	year = {2018},
}

The Anthropocene is defined by unprecedented human influence on the biosphere. Integrative conservation recognizes this inextricable coupling of human and natural systems, and mobilizes multiple epistemologies to seek equitable, enduring solutions to complex socioecological issues. Although a central motivation of global conservation practice is to protect at-risk species, such organisms may be the subject of competing social perspectives that can impede robust interventions. Furthermore, imperiled species are often chronically understudied, which prevents the immediate application of data-driven quantitative modeling approaches in conservation decision making. Instead, real-world management goals are regularly prioritized on the basis of expert opinion. Here, I explore how an organismal natural history perspective, when grounded in a critique of established human judgements, can help resolve socioecological conflicts and contextualize perceived threats related to threatened species conservation and policy development. To achieve this, I leverage a multi-national system anchored by a diverse, enigmatic, and often endangered New World clade: alligator lizards. Using a threat analysis and status assessment, I show that one recent petition to list a California alligator lizard, Elgaria panamintina, under the US Endangered Species Act often contradicts the best available science. Building on this analysis, I also provide empirical evidence that the multi-species petition model under which Elgaria panamintina was proposed is problematic, thus corroborating claims made by the US Fish and Wildlife Service in their recent policy decision to ban such petitions. Shifting to Mesoamerica, I use global and regional status listings, distribution data, and a preliminary protected area gap analysis to show that an entire genus of alligator lizards (Abronia) is warranted for recognition as a flagship, despite conflicting social views toward the lizards. I supplement this finding with novel radio telemetry data on Abronia graminea, which reveals their strong arboreality, generalist forest habitat use, and adaptability to forest disturbance. Finally, I provide a checklist and bilingual dichotomous key for all 29 species of Abronia, and offer best-practice solutions to broader species identification problems in understudied regions of the world. My findings challenge conventional wisdom in this system, and showcase lessons of broad relevance to applied conservation that account for social and biological linkages.

@phdthesis{howard_modeling_2018,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	type = {Ph.{D}. {Dissertation}},
	title = {Modeling the {Effects} of {Precipitation} on {Salamander} {Demography} for {Conservation} {Planning}},
	abstract = {Conservation of natural resources is complex because most human and natural systems are coupled. Integrative conservation planning requires tools that transcend disciplines to understand ecological and human aspects of systems. Southern Appalachia contains exceptional biodiversity which provides ecosystem services across the southeastern United States. The region is rapidly exurbanizing and expected to experience significant climate change. Residential development on mountain slopes is impacting economies, public safety, and ecosystem integrity. To manage natural systems, we need rigorous models identifying areas of current and future suitability for sensitive taxa and understanding of stakeholder perspectives that may affect conservation priorities. Here, I address these needs in the context of salamander ecology and conservation. I reviewed the literature to assess current knowledge of demographic rates for directdeveloping North American Plethodontid salamanders. Some rates are well-documented and transferrable across species, but there are few published estimates of survival, and half, though estimated from field data, may not be realistic. I developed a Bayesian model for an eight-year Plethodon dataset to estimate survival rates and their sensitivity to precipitation. I developed a novel algorithm estimating final clutch size from ovarian follicle counts. I used N-mixture models of repeated counts across a spatial precipitation gradient to estimate precipitationdependent abundance and reproductive rates. I used the survival and reproductive rates to project salamander population growth across the landscape under multiple climate scenarios. Model projections suggest only a small proportion of the region supports consistent positive population growth. Many areas occupied by salamanders likely have limited abundance and depend on source habitats to support local populations. In identifying concerns of stakeholders regarding forest land use, archival and interview sources suggest locals are concerned about economic impacts and regulation of steep slope development, while scientists working in the region are concerned with impacts to biodiversity and natural resources. Nonetheless, participants in a mapping study consistently placed conservation uses at higher elevations than development, suggesting some intrinsic connection between steep slopes and conservation. A map of stakeholder land use priorities and projected population growth rates identified consistencies between areas people prioritized for conservation and areas likely to sustain salamander populations.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Howard, Jillian Sloper},
	year = {2018},
}

Conservation of natural resources is complex because most human and natural systems are coupled. Integrative conservation planning requires tools that transcend disciplines to understand ecological and human aspects of systems. Southern Appalachia contains exceptional biodiversity which provides ecosystem services across the southeastern United States. The region is rapidly exurbanizing and expected to experience significant climate change. Residential development on mountain slopes is impacting economies, public safety, and ecosystem integrity. To manage natural systems, we need rigorous models identifying areas of current and future suitability for sensitive taxa and understanding of stakeholder perspectives that may affect conservation priorities. Here, I address these needs in the context of salamander ecology and conservation. I reviewed the literature to assess current knowledge of demographic rates for directdeveloping North American Plethodontid salamanders. Some rates are well-documented and transferrable across species, but there are few published estimates of survival, and half, though estimated from field data, may not be realistic. I developed a Bayesian model for an eight-year Plethodon dataset to estimate survival rates and their sensitivity to precipitation. I developed a novel algorithm estimating final clutch size from ovarian follicle counts. I used N-mixture models of repeated counts across a spatial precipitation gradient to estimate precipitationdependent abundance and reproductive rates. I used the survival and reproductive rates to project salamander population growth across the landscape under multiple climate scenarios. Model projections suggest only a small proportion of the region supports consistent positive population growth. Many areas occupied by salamanders likely have limited abundance and depend on source habitats to support local populations. In identifying concerns of stakeholders regarding forest land use, archival and interview sources suggest locals are concerned about economic impacts and regulation of steep slope development, while scientists working in the region are concerned with impacts to biodiversity and natural resources. Nonetheless, participants in a mapping study consistently placed conservation uses at higher elevations than development, suggesting some intrinsic connection between steep slopes and conservation. A map of stakeholder land use priorities and projected population growth rates identified consistencies between areas people prioritized for conservation and areas likely to sustain salamander populations.

@mastersthesis{martin_assessment_2018,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	title = {Assessment of a {Novel} {Cyanobacterium} on {Native} {Macrophytes} and {Toxicity} {Potential} for {Trophic} {Transfer} to {Aquatic} {Predators}},
	abstract = {Aetokthonos hydrillicola (Ah) is a novel cyanobacterium that grows on submerged, freshwater macrophytes. The primary substrate for Ah is invasive Hydrilla verticillata, and the co-occurrence of Ah on Hydrilla has been linked to neurological impairment and death of waterbirds, turtles, amphibians, and fish. In laboratory feeding trials, juvenile watersnakes became progressively anorectic, and paedomorphic mole salamanders were lethargic and unresponsive after consuming fish, snails, or tadpoles that fed on Ah-positive Hydrilla. Some watersnakes and salamanders developed intramyelinic vacuoles in the cervical spinal cord. Field surveys confirmed Ah-positive Hydrilla generally had higher toxin concentrations than the native macrophyte Najas guadalupensis; however, some Ah-positive N. guadalupensis samples did exhibit comparable levels of toxin production earlier in the season. These findings raise concerns for expanded wildlife mortality in natural environments through evidence for potential for the Ah toxin in the fall on other aquatic plant species, and higher trophic levels.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Martin, Melissa Katherine},
	year = {2018},
}

Aetokthonos hydrillicola (Ah) is a novel cyanobacterium that grows on submerged, freshwater macrophytes. The primary substrate for Ah is invasive Hydrilla verticillata, and the co-occurrence of Ah on Hydrilla has been linked to neurological impairment and death of waterbirds, turtles, amphibians, and fish. In laboratory feeding trials, juvenile watersnakes became progressively anorectic, and paedomorphic mole salamanders were lethargic and unresponsive after consuming fish, snails, or tadpoles that fed on Ah-positive Hydrilla. Some watersnakes and salamanders developed intramyelinic vacuoles in the cervical spinal cord. Field surveys confirmed Ah-positive Hydrilla generally had higher toxin concentrations than the native macrophyte Najas guadalupensis; however, some Ah-positive N. guadalupensis samples did exhibit comparable levels of toxin production earlier in the season. These findings raise concerns for expanded wildlife mortality in natural environments through evidence for potential for the Ah toxin in the fall on other aquatic plant species, and higher trophic levels.

@phdthesis{ashley_effects_2018,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	type = {Honors {Thesis}},
	title = {Effects of {Salinity} on {Growth}, {Stress}, and {Behavior} of {Hatchling} {Malaclemys} terrapin centrata},
	abstract = {Carolina Diamond-backed terrapins reside in southeastern U.S. coastal salt marshes, ecosystems characterized by the competing influences of inland freshwater and marine environments. Terrapins are adapted to intermediate salinities yet frequently face saltwater-inundated marsh habitat with salinities greater than 25 ppt. We investigated the effect of salinity on hatchling terrapin growth and potential compensatory behavioral and physiological responses to increasing osmotic stress. We acquired 30 terrapin hatchlings from Skidaway Island, Georgia and randomly assigned each to one of five salinity treatments: 1, 5, 10, 20, 35 ppt. For 75 days, we monitored behavior and appetite daily, regularly measured growth, and measured leukocyte ratios as indications of stress. Consistent with previous studies, high salinity significantly reduced hatchling growth. Hatchlings in 20 ppt and 35 ppt salinities exhibited anorexia and saltwater avoidance and were more likely to show freshwater-seeking behaviors. Heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratios were higher among hatchlings in 20 and 35 ppt salinities, indicating stress hormones were chronically elevated. Growth retardation from chronic high salinity exposure could increase hatchling mortality and alter terrapin spatial demography. However, employing compensatory behaviors may offset severe growth effects in the wild, provided freshwater is accessible. Little is known about hatchling behavior and microhabitat use, and our findings suggest hatchling distribution and survival may be partially dependent on freshwater access. As sea levels and coastal salinities rise, alterations to freshwater sources may have implications for terrapin hatchling population persistence.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Ashley, Elizabeth A},
	year = {2018},
}

Carolina Diamond-backed terrapins reside in southeastern U.S. coastal salt marshes, ecosystems characterized by the competing influences of inland freshwater and marine environments. Terrapins are adapted to intermediate salinities yet frequently face saltwater-inundated marsh habitat with salinities greater than 25 ppt. We investigated the effect of salinity on hatchling terrapin growth and potential compensatory behavioral and physiological responses to increasing osmotic stress. We acquired 30 terrapin hatchlings from Skidaway Island, Georgia and randomly assigned each to one of five salinity treatments: 1, 5, 10, 20, 35 ppt. For 75 days, we monitored behavior and appetite daily, regularly measured growth, and measured leukocyte ratios as indications of stress. Consistent with previous studies, high salinity significantly reduced hatchling growth. Hatchlings in 20 ppt and 35 ppt salinities exhibited anorexia and saltwater avoidance and were more likely to show freshwater-seeking behaviors. Heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratios were higher among hatchlings in 20 and 35 ppt salinities, indicating stress hormones were chronically elevated. Growth retardation from chronic high salinity exposure could increase hatchling mortality and alter terrapin spatial demography. However, employing compensatory behaviors may offset severe growth effects in the wild, provided freshwater is accessible. Little is known about hatchling behavior and microhabitat use, and our findings suggest hatchling distribution and survival may be partially dependent on freshwater access. As sea levels and coastal salinities rise, alterations to freshwater sources may have implications for terrapin hatchling population persistence.

@phdthesis{mcentire_integration_2018,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	type = {Ph.{D}. {Dissertation}},
	title = {Integration of {Behavior} {Into} {Biophysical} {Models} to {Estimate} {Salamander} {Sensitivity} to {Climate} and {Midstory} {Forest} {Management}},
	abstract = {Developing rigorous ecological models is a fundamental goal of ecologists in order to forecast biotic responses to environmental change. A limitation of many models is they are amechanistic and lack integration of behavior, which is integral to animal biology. Woodland salamanders (family Plethodontidae) are small, lungless animals known to be sensitive to climate, and often abundant across a wide range of forest conditions. In this dissertation, I reviewed plant climbing among plethodontid salamanders and discuss hypotheses for this commonly observed, but underappreciated, behavior. I integrated biophysical and agent-based models (ABM) to examine how climbing behavior could affect the sensitivity of Plethodontid salamander activity time to climate by using a temperature differential to stimulate plant climbing, allowing salamanders to alter their evaporative water loss rates. I used observations of Plethodontids in the southern Appalachian mountains to evaluate the model predictions. Finally, I used three approaches – a biophysical agent-based model, a field experiment, and spatially replicated surveys - to estimate the potential effects of Rhododendron and its management on terrestrial salamander activity time, survival, and abundance.
The model predicted that climbing increased salamander activity time with greater soil temperature relative to air temperature and increased time since rain. Model predictions were confirmed by field observations. The applied biophysical model predicted a negligible effect of Rhododendron on salamander activity time, and capture-recapture analyses showed no shortterm effects of Rhododendron management on salamander survival. Estimated abundances from comparative surveys indicated little to no effect of Rhododendron on salamander abundance across a rainfall gradient. By using multiple approaches, our results suggest that Rhododendron has a negligible effect on salamander performance or abundance, and cutting Rhododendron and burning the forest floor had no short-term effect on apparent survival. Including compensatory behaviors, like climbing, in models is important because they have the potential to moderate the effects of broader environmental changes - such as climate change - on animal performance and abundance.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Mcentire, Kira Danielle},
	year = {2018},
}

Developing rigorous ecological models is a fundamental goal of ecologists in order to forecast biotic responses to environmental change. A limitation of many models is they are amechanistic and lack integration of behavior, which is integral to animal biology. Woodland salamanders (family Plethodontidae) are small, lungless animals known to be sensitive to climate, and often abundant across a wide range of forest conditions. In this dissertation, I reviewed plant climbing among plethodontid salamanders and discuss hypotheses for this commonly observed, but underappreciated, behavior. I integrated biophysical and agent-based models (ABM) to examine how climbing behavior could affect the sensitivity of Plethodontid salamander activity time to climate by using a temperature differential to stimulate plant climbing, allowing salamanders to alter their evaporative water loss rates. I used observations of Plethodontids in the southern Appalachian mountains to evaluate the model predictions. Finally, I used three approaches – a biophysical agent-based model, a field experiment, and spatially replicated surveys - to estimate the potential effects of Rhododendron and its management on terrestrial salamander activity time, survival, and abundance. The model predicted that climbing increased salamander activity time with greater soil temperature relative to air temperature and increased time since rain. Model predictions were confirmed by field observations. The applied biophysical model predicted a negligible effect of Rhododendron on salamander activity time, and capture-recapture analyses showed no shortterm effects of Rhododendron management on salamander survival. Estimated abundances from comparative surveys indicated little to no effect of Rhododendron on salamander abundance across a rainfall gradient. By using multiple approaches, our results suggest that Rhododendron has a negligible effect on salamander performance or abundance, and cutting Rhododendron and burning the forest floor had no short-term effect on apparent survival. Including compensatory behaviors, like climbing, in models is important because they have the potential to moderate the effects of broader environmental changes - such as climate change - on animal performance and abundance.

@phdthesis{smith_spatial_2017,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	type = {Senior {Thesis}},
	title = {Spatial {Patterns} of {Diamondback} {Terrapin} ({Malaclemys} terrapin) {Nest} {Mortality} in {Relation} to {Vegetation} {Management}: {Implications} for {Persistence} of a {Managed}},
	abstract = {Nesting is an important component in animal life cycles, and many species incur significant costs associated with nesting. Human activities can often interrupt nesting behavior and lead to degradation of nesting habitats. For turtles, altering vegetation structure can lead to reduced nesting success by increasing predation rates. The diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin) occupies salt marshes and female terrapins undergo terrestrial excursions to nest on sparsely vegetated areas above the high tide. Terrapin females show high nest location fidelity and natal philopatry, and therefore, may continue to nest in areas where human activities have degraded local conditions. The objectives of my research are to: (1) evaluate whether the creation and maintenance of shrub habitat increases predation rates on terrapin nests; (2) determine whether spatial patterns of vegetation-driven predation on nests are contributing to a terrapin population decline; and (3) evaluate whether vegetation management will improve terrapin nest survival. Building off of a long-term study of terrapins on the Jekyll Island Causeway (JIC) and a recent dieback of Northern raccoon (Procyon lotor), the primary predator of terrapin nests, I used artificial nests to measure predation rates in areas of hedgerow, recently cleared hedgerow, and open, sparse vegetation. Using the results of my experiment, I modeled spatial patterns of nest mortality along the entire JIC and integrated that into a population viability analysis (PVA) to estimate the effects of vegetation-driven nest predation on terrapin population persistence. I found that predation rates on nests in hedgerows (62.5\% of nests) was 100\% greater compared to the predation rate on nests in open sites (31.7\%). However, nest predation rates in areas of recent shrub removal remained high (71.5\%). Nest predation was 39\% lower in 2016 (45.7\% of nests) compared to a previous study in 2013 at the same locations (75.4\%), which was consistent with the recent die back of the local raccoon population. I found that the top model for estimating depredation of nests at our study site included location and vegetation within a 25-m buffer. The primary driver behind nest depredation rates is the location of the nest and vegetation had a much lower impact than previously thought. Despite the strong effect of vegetation on nest predation, my results suggest that vegetation removal does not immediately reduce predation rates. However, with new estimates of nest depredation, terrapins have a much higher probability of persistence. In the future, management plans should account for the spatial depredation rates in addition to vegetation depredation rates.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Smith, Kayla Jordan},
	year = {2017},
}

Nesting is an important component in animal life cycles, and many species incur significant costs associated with nesting. Human activities can often interrupt nesting behavior and lead to degradation of nesting habitats. For turtles, altering vegetation structure can lead to reduced nesting success by increasing predation rates. The diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin) occupies salt marshes and female terrapins undergo terrestrial excursions to nest on sparsely vegetated areas above the high tide. Terrapin females show high nest location fidelity and natal philopatry, and therefore, may continue to nest in areas where human activities have degraded local conditions. The objectives of my research are to: (1) evaluate whether the creation and maintenance of shrub habitat increases predation rates on terrapin nests; (2) determine whether spatial patterns of vegetation-driven predation on nests are contributing to a terrapin population decline; and (3) evaluate whether vegetation management will improve terrapin nest survival. Building off of a long-term study of terrapins on the Jekyll Island Causeway (JIC) and a recent dieback of Northern raccoon (Procyon lotor), the primary predator of terrapin nests, I used artificial nests to measure predation rates in areas of hedgerow, recently cleared hedgerow, and open, sparse vegetation. Using the results of my experiment, I modeled spatial patterns of nest mortality along the entire JIC and integrated that into a population viability analysis (PVA) to estimate the effects of vegetation-driven nest predation on terrapin population persistence. I found that predation rates on nests in hedgerows (62.5% of nests) was 100% greater compared to the predation rate on nests in open sites (31.7%). However, nest predation rates in areas of recent shrub removal remained high (71.5%). Nest predation was 39% lower in 2016 (45.7% of nests) compared to a previous study in 2013 at the same locations (75.4%), which was consistent with the recent die back of the local raccoon population. I found that the top model for estimating depredation of nests at our study site included location and vegetation within a 25-m buffer. The primary driver behind nest depredation rates is the location of the nest and vegetation had a much lower impact than previously thought. Despite the strong effect of vegetation on nest predation, my results suggest that vegetation removal does not immediately reduce predation rates. However, with new estimates of nest depredation, terrapins have a much higher probability of persistence. In the future, management plans should account for the spatial depredation rates in addition to vegetation depredation rates.

@phdthesis{vaughn_trophic_2017,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	type = {Senior {Thesis}},
	title = {Trophic transfer of {Aetokthonos} hydrillicola to {Northern} and {Banded} watersnakes},
	abstract = {Within freshwater ecosystems, invasive plant species rank among the top threats facing ecosystem function and diversity. Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata), a common aquatic weed, is known for degrading water quality, displacing native vegetation, homogenizing aquatic landscapes, and altering trophic dynamics. Hydrilla is also the primary host for a novel, epiphytic cyanobacteria, Aetokthonos hydrillicola (Ah), that appears broadly neurotoxic to vertebrates that consume Hydrilla. Recent evidence also suggests that toxic Ah can be transferred to predators via an intermediate consumer. We fed fish Ah-positive or Ah-negative Hydrilla and then fed those fish to Northern (Nerodia sipedon) and Banded (N. fasciata) watersnakes to determine whether the Ah neurotoxin could be transferred to a predator via its prey at a level sufficient to cause disease. We monitored snake behavior for 12 weeks. There was no difference in mean time to right between the treatment groups and snakes fed Ah-positive fish did not show any difference in tongue-flick rate compared to snakes fed Ah-negative prey. However, there was a tendency for snakes fed Ah-positive prey to show greater latency in response to repulsive cue (isopropyl alcohol), and by week 7, snakes fed Ah-positive fish became anorectic. The decline in prey consumption was greatest for the smallest snakes fed Ah-positive prey. Overall we observed some behavioral differences among snakes that consumed prey fed Ah-positive Hydrilla that were consistent with disease symptoms observed in other taxa during prior research. Ongoing histological examination will be used to confirm whether snakes are developing neurological disease as a result of exposure to Ah. If confirmed, the results would demonstrate the potential vulnerability of predatory reptiles to Hydrilla invasion and the colonization of Ah.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Vaughn, Audrey Katherine},
	year = {2017},
}

Within freshwater ecosystems, invasive plant species rank among the top threats facing ecosystem function and diversity. Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata), a common aquatic weed, is known for degrading water quality, displacing native vegetation, homogenizing aquatic landscapes, and altering trophic dynamics. Hydrilla is also the primary host for a novel, epiphytic cyanobacteria, Aetokthonos hydrillicola (Ah), that appears broadly neurotoxic to vertebrates that consume Hydrilla. Recent evidence also suggests that toxic Ah can be transferred to predators via an intermediate consumer. We fed fish Ah-positive or Ah-negative Hydrilla and then fed those fish to Northern (Nerodia sipedon) and Banded (N. fasciata) watersnakes to determine whether the Ah neurotoxin could be transferred to a predator via its prey at a level sufficient to cause disease. We monitored snake behavior for 12 weeks. There was no difference in mean time to right between the treatment groups and snakes fed Ah-positive fish did not show any difference in tongue-flick rate compared to snakes fed Ah-negative prey. However, there was a tendency for snakes fed Ah-positive prey to show greater latency in response to repulsive cue (isopropyl alcohol), and by week 7, snakes fed Ah-positive fish became anorectic. The decline in prey consumption was greatest for the smallest snakes fed Ah-positive prey. Overall we observed some behavioral differences among snakes that consumed prey fed Ah-positive Hydrilla that were consistent with disease symptoms observed in other taxa during prior research. Ongoing histological examination will be used to confirm whether snakes are developing neurological disease as a result of exposure to Ah. If confirmed, the results would demonstrate the potential vulnerability of predatory reptiles to Hydrilla invasion and the colonization of Ah.

@phdthesis{pearce_evaluating_2017,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	type = {Senior {Thesis}},
	title = {Evaluating the {Impact} of {Road} {Noise} on the {Heart} {Rate} of {Adult} {Monarch} {bButterflies}, {Danaus} plexippus},
	abstract = {As human population densities grow, the noise pollution generated is affecting animal populations in various ways. Noise pollution is anthropogenic sound that is louder, more frequent, and more common than its natural noise, and chronic exposure to noise pollution can cause stress in animals that adversely affects fitness. I tested whether simulated road noise induced stress in adult monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) as evidenced by changes in butterfly heart rates before and after exposure to road noise. I exposed 39 monarchs to 30 or 60 minutes of road noise in a laboratory setting and looked for evidence that their hear rates became elevated following exposure. Heart rates pre- and post-exposure were highly variable and generally appeared to increase over the course of the study; however, there was no measurable effect of road noise on monarch heart rates. My results suggest that the methods used in this study may have caused elevated stress in monarchs, limiting our ability to detect any potential effects of road noise. Alternative approaches will be needed before it can be determined whether monarchs exhibit stress responses to chronic noise exposure. This topic merits further investigation, as it may have implications for the proposed use of roadside management zones for pollinator conservation throughout the United States.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Pearce, Jana Rebecca Prillaman},
	year = {2017},
}

As human population densities grow, the noise pollution generated is affecting animal populations in various ways. Noise pollution is anthropogenic sound that is louder, more frequent, and more common than its natural noise, and chronic exposure to noise pollution can cause stress in animals that adversely affects fitness. I tested whether simulated road noise induced stress in adult monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) as evidenced by changes in butterfly heart rates before and after exposure to road noise. I exposed 39 monarchs to 30 or 60 minutes of road noise in a laboratory setting and looked for evidence that their hear rates became elevated following exposure. Heart rates pre- and post-exposure were highly variable and generally appeared to increase over the course of the study; however, there was no measurable effect of road noise on monarch heart rates. My results suggest that the methods used in this study may have caused elevated stress in monarchs, limiting our ability to detect any potential effects of road noise. Alternative approaches will be needed before it can be determined whether monarchs exhibit stress responses to chronic noise exposure. This topic merits further investigation, as it may have implications for the proposed use of roadside management zones for pollinator conservation throughout the United States.

@mastersthesis{abernathy_large_2017,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	title = {Large and {Fine} {Scale} {Drivers} of {Insectivores} in the {Southern} {Appalachian} {Mountains}: {Using} {Inference} {Regarding} {Biological} {Interactions} to {Build} and {Better} {Habitat} {Suitability} {Model}},
	abstract = {We examined how spatial variation in long-term precipitation patterns and site productivity potential directly and indirectly predicted foliar C:N, caterpillar biomass, and abundance of 11 songbird species in the southern Appalachian Mountains. Our results suggested that variation in abundance was best explained by elevation. In order to understand the potential driver of elevation or mean annual precipitation at a larger scale, we compared occupancy models using land cover and elevation only to models that included finer scale climate data for trailing-edge populations of the Black-throated Blue Warbler (Setophaga caerulescens, BTBW). Models that included local mean annual precipitation, integrated moisture index, and heat load index predicted 4,800 - 44,776 fewer acres than models using land cover and elevation.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Abernathy, Heather Nichole},
	year = {2017},
}

We examined how spatial variation in long-term precipitation patterns and site productivity potential directly and indirectly predicted foliar C:N, caterpillar biomass, and abundance of 11 songbird species in the southern Appalachian Mountains. Our results suggested that variation in abundance was best explained by elevation. In order to understand the potential driver of elevation or mean annual precipitation at a larger scale, we compared occupancy models using land cover and elevation only to models that included finer scale climate data for trailing-edge populations of the Black-throated Blue Warbler (Setophaga caerulescens, BTBW). Models that included local mean annual precipitation, integrated moisture index, and heat load index predicted 4,800 - 44,776 fewer acres than models using land cover and elevation.

@phdthesis{pack_nesting_2017,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	type = {Senior {Thesis}},
	title = {Nesting {Patterns} of {Loggerhead} {Sea} {Turtles} ({Caretta} caretta) on the {Georgia} {Coast} in {Relation} to {Beach} {Vegetation}},
	abstract = {Due to global climate change, sea level rise is an increasing global concern and is predicted to have serious consequences on coastal communities. More storm surges corresponded with sea level rise has the ability to cause increased erosion, flooding, and increased frequencies of extreme high tide events. An increase in sea level is reducing the amount of beach viable for organisms and one species this can affect in particular are sea turtles. Other than wide, sloping beaches researchers are unsure why female sea turtles nest in certain locations at their natal sites. One parameter lacking research is the affect of density of coastal dune vegetation on nest site selection and nest fates. Our objectives in this study were to determine what effects crawl distance, washover events, and fates of loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) nests. Specifically, we focused on determining if there were any correlations to our objectives in relation to vegetation density. In summer 2016, we sampled approximately 20\% of the total in situ nests on four barrier islands on the Georgia coast (Ossabaw, Sapelo, Little Saint Simons, and Jekyll). The average density of vegetation loggerheads were utilizing was 11.56\%. We determined that an increase in beach width and vegetation density increased the distance crawled by female loggerheads and the number of washovers events increased when the crawl distances were shorter and vegetation densities were lower. Higher vegetation densities decreased the number of days the nest incubated, but when vegetation density had an interaction with washover events, the number of incubation days increased. For the fates of the nests, both hatch success and emergence success decreased when there were more washover events. Managers should consider how sea level rise would affect nesting behavior and fates of the nests, especially when humans are trying to counteract sea level rise by nourishment and seawalls.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Pack, Rachel},
	year = {2017},
}

Due to global climate change, sea level rise is an increasing global concern and is predicted to have serious consequences on coastal communities. More storm surges corresponded with sea level rise has the ability to cause increased erosion, flooding, and increased frequencies of extreme high tide events. An increase in sea level is reducing the amount of beach viable for organisms and one species this can affect in particular are sea turtles. Other than wide, sloping beaches researchers are unsure why female sea turtles nest in certain locations at their natal sites. One parameter lacking research is the affect of density of coastal dune vegetation on nest site selection and nest fates. Our objectives in this study were to determine what effects crawl distance, washover events, and fates of loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) nests. Specifically, we focused on determining if there were any correlations to our objectives in relation to vegetation density. In summer 2016, we sampled approximately 20% of the total in situ nests on four barrier islands on the Georgia coast (Ossabaw, Sapelo, Little Saint Simons, and Jekyll). The average density of vegetation loggerheads were utilizing was 11.56%. We determined that an increase in beach width and vegetation density increased the distance crawled by female loggerheads and the number of washovers events increased when the crawl distances were shorter and vegetation densities were lower. Higher vegetation densities decreased the number of days the nest incubated, but when vegetation density had an interaction with washover events, the number of incubation days increased. For the fates of the nests, both hatch success and emergence success decreased when there were more washover events. Managers should consider how sea level rise would affect nesting behavior and fates of the nests, especially when humans are trying to counteract sea level rise by nourishment and seawalls.

@phdthesis{reynolds_assessment_2017,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	type = {Senior {Thesis}},
	title = {Assessment of {Spatial} {Distributions} of {Sea} {Turtle} {Nests} in {Relation} to {Artificial} {Lighting} in {St}. {Kitts}, {West} {Indies}},
	abstract = {Light pollution associated with coastal development is a widely recognized threat to sea turtle populations. In addition to causing disorientation in hatchlings, artificial lighting poses a threat to sea turtles because it can deter females from nesting in suitable areas and increases nesting in lesssuitablehabitats. St. Kitts in the northeastern Caribbean Sea is an important nesting area for the endangered green (Chelonia mydas) and critically endangered hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) sea turtles and St. Kitts has had a significant rise in tourism-related development. We used records of turtle nesting events from 2005 to 2017 and GIS data on vegetation cover and light levels along seven beaches in St. Kitts, and we modeled the effects of beach lighting and vegetation on the probability that a turtle would nest at a beach location, and the probability that a nesting attempt would result in a “false crawl” where the female abandons the nesting effort. We hypothesized that the probability of a turtle nesting at a location would be negatively correlated with light levels and positively correlated with low vegetation. We also hypothesized that the probability of a false crawl would be positively correlated with light levels and negatively correlated with low vegetation cover. We found that beach lighting levels varied by several orders of magnitude with the highest levels concentrated on Banana Bay near an area of recent resort development. Contrary to our hypothesis, the probability of nesting was positively correlated with beach light levels; however, consistent with our hypothesis, the probability of nesting was positively correlated with the coverage of low vegetation (primarily Manchineel trees and Sea grapes). The probability of a false crawl was not correlated with beach lighting, but consistent with our hypothesis, was negatively correlated with the amount of low vegetation. Because turtles show high natal nests site philopatry, the positively correlation between beach lighting and the probability of a turtle nesting may be an artifact of the recent development and lighting of beaches that have historically supported high numbers of nesting turtles. The positive effects of vegetation on both the likelihood of nesting and reduced likelihood of a false crawl suggests that removal of vegetation associated with beach front development could negatively affect Hawksbill and Green turtle nesting.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Reynolds, Jessica Lauren},
	year = {2017},
}

Light pollution associated with coastal development is a widely recognized threat to sea turtle populations. In addition to causing disorientation in hatchlings, artificial lighting poses a threat to sea turtles because it can deter females from nesting in suitable areas and increases nesting in lesssuitablehabitats. St. Kitts in the northeastern Caribbean Sea is an important nesting area for the endangered green (Chelonia mydas) and critically endangered hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) sea turtles and St. Kitts has had a significant rise in tourism-related development. We used records of turtle nesting events from 2005 to 2017 and GIS data on vegetation cover and light levels along seven beaches in St. Kitts, and we modeled the effects of beach lighting and vegetation on the probability that a turtle would nest at a beach location, and the probability that a nesting attempt would result in a “false crawl” where the female abandons the nesting effort. We hypothesized that the probability of a turtle nesting at a location would be negatively correlated with light levels and positively correlated with low vegetation. We also hypothesized that the probability of a false crawl would be positively correlated with light levels and negatively correlated with low vegetation cover. We found that beach lighting levels varied by several orders of magnitude with the highest levels concentrated on Banana Bay near an area of recent resort development. Contrary to our hypothesis, the probability of nesting was positively correlated with beach light levels; however, consistent with our hypothesis, the probability of nesting was positively correlated with the coverage of low vegetation (primarily Manchineel trees and Sea grapes). The probability of a false crawl was not correlated with beach lighting, but consistent with our hypothesis, was negatively correlated with the amount of low vegetation. Because turtles show high natal nests site philopatry, the positively correlation between beach lighting and the probability of a turtle nesting may be an artifact of the recent development and lighting of beaches that have historically supported high numbers of nesting turtles. The positive effects of vegetation on both the likelihood of nesting and reduced likelihood of a false crawl suggests that removal of vegetation associated with beach front development could negatively affect Hawksbill and Green turtle nesting.

@phdthesis{abouhamdan_modeling_2016,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	type = {Senior {Thesis}},
	title = {Modeling {Anuran} {Site} {Occupancy} of {Stormwater} {Basins} {Versus} {Natural} {Wetlands} in the {Georgia} {Piedmont}},
	abstract = {Stormwater basins are ubiquitous features of urbanized landscapes of the southeastern United States. As natural wetlands are lost or altered by development, stormwater basins may provide suitable habitat for amphibians. I performed call surveys at 23 sites (11 natural wetlands and 12 stormwater basins) bi-monthly from March to July 2015. Nine of fourteen detected species had sufficient numbers of detections among sties to be modeled. I used robust call survey data to examine colonization patterns directly related to occupancy of these nine anuran species among stormwater basins and natural wetlands within a developing landscape within the Georgia Piedmont. Waterbody type affected colonization of only two species, Green Frog (Lithobates clamitus) and Spring Peeper (Pseudacris crucifer). Three species generally associated with more permanent water had a best-fit model including the effect of permanence (hydroperiod) on colonization: Northern Cricket Frog (Acris crepitans), Bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus), and Green Treefrog (Hyla cinerea). Four of the nine analyzed species had a null model including no covariates as their best-fit model. These results suggest that stormwater basins and natural waterbodies might be similarly attractive to many anuran species, or the presence of stormwater basins in proximity to natural wetlands is homogenizing anuran species across sites irrespective of differences in hydroperiod. I caution that colonization/occupancy studies using calling anurans may not be the best indicator of habitat suitability. Multi-annual tadpole species (e.g., Bullfrogs) are unlikely to reproduce successfully in natural wetlands that dry annually, and species adapted to natural wetlands may be attracted to more permanent stormwater ponds where their tadpoles are exposed to aquatic competitors and predators. Future research needs to determine whether stormwater basins may be creating ecological traps for some amphibian species in developing landscapes.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Abouhamdan, Abbie},
	year = {2016},
}

Stormwater basins are ubiquitous features of urbanized landscapes of the southeastern United States. As natural wetlands are lost or altered by development, stormwater basins may provide suitable habitat for amphibians. I performed call surveys at 23 sites (11 natural wetlands and 12 stormwater basins) bi-monthly from March to July 2015. Nine of fourteen detected species had sufficient numbers of detections among sties to be modeled. I used robust call survey data to examine colonization patterns directly related to occupancy of these nine anuran species among stormwater basins and natural wetlands within a developing landscape within the Georgia Piedmont. Waterbody type affected colonization of only two species, Green Frog (Lithobates clamitus) and Spring Peeper (Pseudacris crucifer). Three species generally associated with more permanent water had a best-fit model including the effect of permanence (hydroperiod) on colonization: Northern Cricket Frog (Acris crepitans), Bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus), and Green Treefrog (Hyla cinerea). Four of the nine analyzed species had a null model including no covariates as their best-fit model. These results suggest that stormwater basins and natural waterbodies might be similarly attractive to many anuran species, or the presence of stormwater basins in proximity to natural wetlands is homogenizing anuran species across sites irrespective of differences in hydroperiod. I caution that colonization/occupancy studies using calling anurans may not be the best indicator of habitat suitability. Multi-annual tadpole species (e.g., Bullfrogs) are unlikely to reproduce successfully in natural wetlands that dry annually, and species adapted to natural wetlands may be attracted to more permanent stormwater ponds where their tadpoles are exposed to aquatic competitors and predators. Future research needs to determine whether stormwater basins may be creating ecological traps for some amphibian species in developing landscapes.

@phdthesis{candal_factors_2016,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	type = {Senior {Thesis}},
	title = {Factors {Influencing} {Nesting} and {Road} {Crossing} {Behavior} in {Diamondback} {Terrapin} ({Malaclemys} terrapin)},
	abstract = {Roads are a pervasive feature of human built landscapes that can fragment wildlife habitat and increase the risk of wildlife-vehicle collisions. We used seven years (2009-2015) of markrecapture data from intensive road surveys during the nesting season to determine environmental and intrinsic factors influencing nest site fidelity and road-crossing behavior in diamondback terrapins (Malaclemys terrapin) along the 8.7-km Downing-Musgrove Causeway in Jekyll Island, Georgia. We used linear and logistic regressions to analyze the effects of roadside hedge and individual head width (used as a proxy for age) on longitudinal nest site fidelity and roadcrossing behavior. Our results confirmed intercapture distances of 50–100 m, and we found evidence of fidelity to crossing behaviors between captures. We found habitat was similar between nest sites at the 50-m scale (P {\textless} 0.001), and dense roadside hedge increased roadcrossing behavior at 25- and 50-m scales (P {\textless} 0.001). We also found that head width was negatively correlated with intercapture distances (P = .0018) and road crossing (P = 0.056). Our results show dense vegetation results in less precise nest site fidelity and increased crossing behavior. They also show older females exhibit more precise nest site fidelity and are less likely to cross roads. The management implications of our study support the need for vegetation removal along both roadsides of the JIC in areas of high terrapin density as a way to create ideal nesting habitat and reduce road crossing. We also suggest that road crossing is partly a result of less experienced females nesting over wider sections of the causeway, which supports the need to keep young females off of roads through the use of barriers and vegetation management. Overall, this study demonstrates the importance of incorporating studies of animal behavior in creating management strategies.},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Candal, Carmen},
	year = {2016},
}

Roads are a pervasive feature of human built landscapes that can fragment wildlife habitat and increase the risk of wildlife-vehicle collisions. We used seven years (2009-2015) of markrecapture data from intensive road surveys during the nesting season to determine environmental and intrinsic factors influencing nest site fidelity and road-crossing behavior in diamondback terrapins (Malaclemys terrapin) along the 8.7-km Downing-Musgrove Causeway in Jekyll Island, Georgia. We used linear and logistic regressions to analyze the effects of roadside hedge and individual head width (used as a proxy for age) on longitudinal nest site fidelity and roadcrossing behavior. Our results confirmed intercapture distances of 50–100 m, and we found evidence of fidelity to crossing behaviors between captures. We found habitat was similar between nest sites at the 50-m scale (P \textless 0.001), and dense roadside hedge increased roadcrossing behavior at 25- and 50-m scales (P \textless 0.001). We also found that head width was negatively correlated with intercapture distances (P = .0018) and road crossing (P = 0.056). Our results show dense vegetation results in less precise nest site fidelity and increased crossing behavior. They also show older females exhibit more precise nest site fidelity and are less likely to cross roads. The management implications of our study support the need for vegetation removal along both roadsides of the JIC in areas of high terrapin density as a way to create ideal nesting habitat and reduce road crossing. We also suggest that road crossing is partly a result of less experienced females nesting over wider sections of the causeway, which supports the need to keep young females off of roads through the use of barriers and vegetation management. Overall, this study demonstrates the importance of incorporating studies of animal behavior in creating management strategies.

@phdthesis{crawford_roads_2016,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	type = {Ph.{D}. {Dissertation}},
	title = {Roads, {Reptiles}, and {Recovery}: {Applying} a {Collaborative} {Decisions}-{Making} {Approach} for {Diamondback} {Terrapin} ({Malaclemys} terrapin) {Conservation} in {Georgia}},
	abstract = {Natural resource managers frequently face difficult decisions for wicked conservation issues that include multiple threats and management options, competing objectives (e.g., biodiversity, human well-being), diverse stakeholder preferences, and uncertainty of decision outcomes. Structured decision making (SDM) has emerged as an effective tool for addressing such contexts, but SDM has not been applied to one widespread conservation issue: roads. Roads pose a substantial challenge as they simultaneously represent a pervasive threat to wildlife populations and infrastructure important for people’s daily lives and local economies. We describe the co-development of a multi-objective SDM framework with local stakeholders to identify management decisions using the diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin) as a focal species and the Jekyll Island Causeway (JIC: Jekyll Island, Georgia, USA) as a model system. Stakeholders specified multiple objectives, including maximizing terrapin population persistence, maximizing patron satisfaction, and minimizing project costs. We employed integrated modeling and decision analysis to explicitly link threats and management actions to population and socioeconomic outcomes. Models were informed by empirical work estimating the effects of roadside vegetation on nest predation, effects of current and potential management actions on terrapin survival and population viability, and management preferences of JIC user groups. We found that two management devices deployed on the JIC (roadside barriers and flashing warning signage) significantly reduced road threats, but the terrapin population continued to decline in the absence of additional actions. The best-performing management strategy was robust to differences in stakeholder values and included complimentary actions such as roadside barriers, on-road signage, and vegetation and predator removal. This study demonstrates the efficacy of applying SDM to road management contexts and the need for incorporating human dimensions data into SDM to more accurately represent social objective outcomes. Results from flashing signage on the JIC and additional work using social marketing interventions to address diverse human-wildlife conflicts showed that positive conservation outcomes are achievable through changing human behaviors. Ultimately, the approaches employed in this work – understanding species life history and behavior, focusing on multiple threats and objectives, and integrating people into management solutions – should assist managers in reaching defendable decisions for other challenging conservation issues.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Crawford, Brian Andrew},
	year = {2016},
}

Natural resource managers frequently face difficult decisions for wicked conservation issues that include multiple threats and management options, competing objectives (e.g., biodiversity, human well-being), diverse stakeholder preferences, and uncertainty of decision outcomes. Structured decision making (SDM) has emerged as an effective tool for addressing such contexts, but SDM has not been applied to one widespread conservation issue: roads. Roads pose a substantial challenge as they simultaneously represent a pervasive threat to wildlife populations and infrastructure important for people’s daily lives and local economies. We describe the co-development of a multi-objective SDM framework with local stakeholders to identify management decisions using the diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin) as a focal species and the Jekyll Island Causeway (JIC: Jekyll Island, Georgia, USA) as a model system. Stakeholders specified multiple objectives, including maximizing terrapin population persistence, maximizing patron satisfaction, and minimizing project costs. We employed integrated modeling and decision analysis to explicitly link threats and management actions to population and socioeconomic outcomes. Models were informed by empirical work estimating the effects of roadside vegetation on nest predation, effects of current and potential management actions on terrapin survival and population viability, and management preferences of JIC user groups. We found that two management devices deployed on the JIC (roadside barriers and flashing warning signage) significantly reduced road threats, but the terrapin population continued to decline in the absence of additional actions. The best-performing management strategy was robust to differences in stakeholder values and included complimentary actions such as roadside barriers, on-road signage, and vegetation and predator removal. This study demonstrates the efficacy of applying SDM to road management contexts and the need for incorporating human dimensions data into SDM to more accurately represent social objective outcomes. Results from flashing signage on the JIC and additional work using social marketing interventions to address diverse human-wildlife conflicts showed that positive conservation outcomes are achievable through changing human behaviors. Ultimately, the approaches employed in this work – understanding species life history and behavior, focusing on multiple threats and objectives, and integrating people into management solutions – should assist managers in reaching defendable decisions for other challenging conservation issues.

@phdthesis{diamond_evaluating_2016,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	type = {Senior {Thesis}},
	title = {Evaluating the {Performance} of {Captive}-{Reared} {Gopher} {Frog} {Metamorphs} to {Improve} {Amphibian} {Reintroduction} {Programs}},
	abstract = {Habitat loss and degradation increase the risk of local extinction and reduce population viability. The management of species distributed among isolated habitat fragments requires strategies to conserve and stabilize these vulnerable populations. Captive rearing and translocations are common tools for the conservation of threatened wildlife, particularly within highly fragmented landscapes. While there have been many captive rearing and translocation programs for a variety of wildlife, the majority are unsuccessful. This is particularly true for amphibians. Thus there is a need for research evaluating relationships between captive rearing and release protocols and the performance of captive reared individuals to inform the refinement of captive rearing and release programs. Gopher Frogs (Rana capito) are a state-listed threatened species in the state of Georgia and candidate for federal protection. We raised over 2000 Gopher Frog tadpoles at different larval densities to determine the effects of larval density on size and timing at metamorphosis. Then we released metamorphs at the William’s Bluff Preserve, a restored sited managed by the Nature Conservancy in Early County, GA. We used radio telemetry to observed metamorph movements, microhabitat use, and fate over a two-week period, and we examined the effects of size at metamorphosis on metamorph survival and movement distance, and we examined the relationship between metamorph microhabitat use and survival. Larger rearing densities had a negative effect on size at metamorphosis, and increased the variance in days to metamorphosis. Size at metamorphosis was positively correlated with survival such that the benefits of doubling larval density to produce more frogs were offset by higher mortality shortly after release. Metamorphs showed a progressive settlement into Gopher Tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) burrows, and all metamorphos known alive after two weeks were within tortoise burrows. Metamorphs emigrated up to 780 m within the first 7 days post release, and emigration distance was positively correlated with size a metamorphosis. We estimated that 28\% of our individuals dispersed far enough to move beyond the managed property boundary. Our results show that optimizing larval rearing density to maximize size at metamorphosis will improve the survival of translocated metamorphic amphibians. Management for keystone species (e.g., Gopher tortoises) or processes will also be important for translocation success, and creating soft release protocols to limit metamorph mortality and emigration beyond managed areas may be important.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Diamond, Sara Lindsey},
	year = {2016},
}

Habitat loss and degradation increase the risk of local extinction and reduce population viability. The management of species distributed among isolated habitat fragments requires strategies to conserve and stabilize these vulnerable populations. Captive rearing and translocations are common tools for the conservation of threatened wildlife, particularly within highly fragmented landscapes. While there have been many captive rearing and translocation programs for a variety of wildlife, the majority are unsuccessful. This is particularly true for amphibians. Thus there is a need for research evaluating relationships between captive rearing and release protocols and the performance of captive reared individuals to inform the refinement of captive rearing and release programs. Gopher Frogs (Rana capito) are a state-listed threatened species in the state of Georgia and candidate for federal protection. We raised over 2000 Gopher Frog tadpoles at different larval densities to determine the effects of larval density on size and timing at metamorphosis. Then we released metamorphs at the William’s Bluff Preserve, a restored sited managed by the Nature Conservancy in Early County, GA. We used radio telemetry to observed metamorph movements, microhabitat use, and fate over a two-week period, and we examined the effects of size at metamorphosis on metamorph survival and movement distance, and we examined the relationship between metamorph microhabitat use and survival. Larger rearing densities had a negative effect on size at metamorphosis, and increased the variance in days to metamorphosis. Size at metamorphosis was positively correlated with survival such that the benefits of doubling larval density to produce more frogs were offset by higher mortality shortly after release. Metamorphs showed a progressive settlement into Gopher Tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) burrows, and all metamorphos known alive after two weeks were within tortoise burrows. Metamorphs emigrated up to 780 m within the first 7 days post release, and emigration distance was positively correlated with size a metamorphosis. We estimated that 28% of our individuals dispersed far enough to move beyond the managed property boundary. Our results show that optimizing larval rearing density to maximize size at metamorphosis will improve the survival of translocated metamorphic amphibians. Management for keystone species (e.g., Gopher tortoises) or processes will also be important for translocation success, and creating soft release protocols to limit metamorph mortality and emigration beyond managed areas may be important.

@phdthesis{satterfield_understanding_2016,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	type = {Ph.{D}. {Dissertation}},
	title = {{UNDERSTANDING} {HOW} {SHIFTS} {FROM} {MIGRATORY} {TO} {SEDENTARY} {BEHAVIOR} {INFLUENCE} {PATHOGEN} {DYNAMICS} {IN} {A} {BUTTERFLY} {HOST}},
	abstract = {Seasonal animal migrations can have profound ecological consequences, including for infectious disease dynamics. Migration can often lower infection risk, if animals escape from parasitecontaminated habitats or if strenuous journeys cull infected hosts. Many migratory species are now undergoing shifts or declines in migration. Numerous animal species have responded to environmental changes by forming sedentary populations that remain in the same location. My doctoral research explores how the break-down of animal migrations alters pathogen transmission. Two driving questions guide this work: (1) Do sedentary populations that forego migration face greater infection risk compared to migratory conspecific populations? (2) Do sedentary populations affect the behavior and infection risk of remaining migratory animals? We focused on monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) and their protozoan parasite (Ophryocystis elektroscirrha, OE) as a model system. Most monarchs in North America migrate annually to overwintering areas in Mexico and California, and this journey reduces OE prevalence. In parts of the U.S., however, some monarchs now breed year-round on an exotic milkweed species planted in gardens. We collaborated with citizen scientists to test over 9000 wild monarchs for parasites. Results showed that, relative to migratory butterflies, sedentary monarchs experienced 5- to 9-fold higher infection risk at year-round breeding sites. We next developed a mathematical model to examine host-parasite dynamics at a much smaller scale, within a milkweed patch. Our model indicated that OE spore persistence in the environment led to rising prevalence within a breeding season. This could be particularly important at sedentary sites, where breeding is continuous. Finally, we evaluated potential impacts of sedentary monarchs on migrants, using chemical analyses to distinguish natal origins of wild butterflies. We found that migratory monarchs share habitat with parasitized resident monarchs in the fall and spring in coastal Texas. Migrants sampled at year-round breeding sites showed a greater probability of having OE infections and reproductive activity – both factors that are known to decrease migratory success. Collectively, our findings suggest that human activities that alter animal migrations can influence pathogen dynamics. For this butterfly species, native and seasonal milkweeds (rather than exotic, year-round species) could better support monarch migration and health.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Satterfield, Dara Ashley},
	year = {2016},
}

Seasonal animal migrations can have profound ecological consequences, including for infectious disease dynamics. Migration can often lower infection risk, if animals escape from parasitecontaminated habitats or if strenuous journeys cull infected hosts. Many migratory species are now undergoing shifts or declines in migration. Numerous animal species have responded to environmental changes by forming sedentary populations that remain in the same location. My doctoral research explores how the break-down of animal migrations alters pathogen transmission. Two driving questions guide this work: (1) Do sedentary populations that forego migration face greater infection risk compared to migratory conspecific populations? (2) Do sedentary populations affect the behavior and infection risk of remaining migratory animals? We focused on monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) and their protozoan parasite (Ophryocystis elektroscirrha, OE) as a model system. Most monarchs in North America migrate annually to overwintering areas in Mexico and California, and this journey reduces OE prevalence. In parts of the U.S., however, some monarchs now breed year-round on an exotic milkweed species planted in gardens. We collaborated with citizen scientists to test over 9000 wild monarchs for parasites. Results showed that, relative to migratory butterflies, sedentary monarchs experienced 5- to 9-fold higher infection risk at year-round breeding sites. We next developed a mathematical model to examine host-parasite dynamics at a much smaller scale, within a milkweed patch. Our model indicated that OE spore persistence in the environment led to rising prevalence within a breeding season. This could be particularly important at sedentary sites, where breeding is continuous. Finally, we evaluated potential impacts of sedentary monarchs on migrants, using chemical analyses to distinguish natal origins of wild butterflies. We found that migratory monarchs share habitat with parasitized resident monarchs in the fall and spring in coastal Texas. Migrants sampled at year-round breeding sites showed a greater probability of having OE infections and reproductive activity – both factors that are known to decrease migratory success. Collectively, our findings suggest that human activities that alter animal migrations can influence pathogen dynamics. For this butterfly species, native and seasonal milkweeds (rather than exotic, year-round species) could better support monarch migration and health.

@phdthesis{bentley_complementary_2015,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	type = {Senior {Thesis}},
	title = {Complementary {Habitat} {Use} of the {Eastern} {Box} {Turtle} ({Terrapene} carolina) in the {Georgia} {Piedmont}},
	abstract = {Complementary habitats are	typically recognized for	species that require	distinctly different habitat types, such	as aquatic and terrestrial. However, these	complementary	habitats can be	more	 subtle for species that occupy only a single habitat “type”, such as forests. Most	turtles exhibit complementary habitats, occupying	aquatic habitats with	females making seasonal movements upland to nest. Eastern box turtles (Terrapene	carolina) are closely related to semi-aquatic Emydid aquatic	 turtles known to make extensive overland movements including upland migrations to complementary	 nesting habitats; and Eastern box turtles are known	 to utilize both upland and bottomland forests including	river	floodplain	and wetland habitats. Whether Eastern box turtles utilize complementary	 habitats has not been	examined. We used radiotelemetry	to track 8 Eastern box turtles daily for 5	 months in	the Georgia Piedmont	to find evidence of complementary habitat use. Our data	show	 that	all turtles had some if not most of their home	range in bottomland, river floodplain	forest; however, females also made repeated migrations between bottomland and upland forests, and a	large portion of	 their home range	including	upland forest habitat. Females also had larger home	ranges. Males seldom occurred	outside bottomland	forests and their	home ranges were largely confined to the	contour of the	 forested flood plain. Though males and	females differed in both	size	and habitat within	their	home ranges, males	and females had similar mean	daily movement and cumulative distances	moved over the	 5 month period. Our results suggest that female Eastern box turtles exhibit complementary forest habitat requirements analogous to aquatic species	within the same family. Based	on the large home ranges encompassing areas in two habitats, and the high rates of	movement, conservation considerations should focus on the vulnerability of females to	repeated road crossings and interactions  with suburban landscape	features. In addition, both	males and	females require	bottomland ecosystems, which	are prone to degradation by pollution and invasive species.	Conservation of bottomland forests may be more important for box turtles than is currently recognized.},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Bentley, Katherine},
	year = {2015},
}

Complementary habitats are typically recognized for species that require distinctly different habitat types, such as aquatic and terrestrial. However, these complementary habitats can be more subtle for species that occupy only a single habitat “type”, such as forests. Most turtles exhibit complementary habitats, occupying aquatic habitats with females making seasonal movements upland to nest. Eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina) are closely related to semi-aquatic Emydid aquatic turtles known to make extensive overland movements including upland migrations to complementary nesting habitats; and Eastern box turtles are known to utilize both upland and bottomland forests including river floodplain and wetland habitats. Whether Eastern box turtles utilize complementary habitats has not been examined. We used radiotelemetry to track 8 Eastern box turtles daily for 5 months in the Georgia Piedmont to find evidence of complementary habitat use. Our data show that all turtles had some if not most of their home range in bottomland, river floodplain forest; however, females also made repeated migrations between bottomland and upland forests, and a large portion of their home range including upland forest habitat. Females also had larger home ranges. Males seldom occurred outside bottomland forests and their home ranges were largely confined to the contour of the forested flood plain. Though males and females differed in both size and habitat within their home ranges, males and females had similar mean daily movement and cumulative distances moved over the 5 month period. Our results suggest that female Eastern box turtles exhibit complementary forest habitat requirements analogous to aquatic species within the same family. Based on the large home ranges encompassing areas in two habitats, and the high rates of movement, conservation considerations should focus on the vulnerability of females to repeated road crossings and interactions with suburban landscape features. In addition, both males and females require bottomland ecosystems, which are prone to degradation by pollution and invasive species. Conservation of bottomland forests may be more important for box turtles than is currently recognized.

@mastersthesis{asper_investigating_2015,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	title = {Investigating a {Management} {Program} for {Introduced} {Green} {Treefrogs} at {Great} {Smoky} {Mountains} {National} {Park}},
	abstract = {The mandate of Great Smoky Mountain National Park (GSMNP) is to preserve its resources in ways that will leave them essentially unaltered by human influences, which includes the management of nonnative species. Non-native Green treefrogs (Hyla cinerea) were introduced and have established large population throughout Cades Cove, GSMNP. We used capture-mark-recapture to estimate the size of the breeding population at the putative introduction site, and call surveys to estimate native anuran and H. cinerea occupancy among wetlands. We also used mesocosms to test the effects of wetland type on larval performance. Finally, using data from these studies and literature, we used Individual Based Modeling (IBM) to evaluate likely scenarios for the invasion of H. cinerea into Cades Cove. Models suggest that facilitated “dispersal”, possibly via tourists, likely plays a role in the spread of H. cinerea throughout Cades Cove and therefore effective management strategies may require understanding visitor behavior. INDEX WORDS: Hyla cinerea, Green treefrog, population management, Individual Based Modeling, population estimation.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Asper, Jennifer},
	year = {2015},
}

The mandate of Great Smoky Mountain National Park (GSMNP) is to preserve its resources in ways that will leave them essentially unaltered by human influences, which includes the management of nonnative species. Non-native Green treefrogs (Hyla cinerea) were introduced and have established large population throughout Cades Cove, GSMNP. We used capture-mark-recapture to estimate the size of the breeding population at the putative introduction site, and call surveys to estimate native anuran and H. cinerea occupancy among wetlands. We also used mesocosms to test the effects of wetland type on larval performance. Finally, using data from these studies and literature, we used Individual Based Modeling (IBM) to evaluate likely scenarios for the invasion of H. cinerea into Cades Cove. Models suggest that facilitated “dispersal”, possibly via tourists, likely plays a role in the spread of H. cinerea throughout Cades Cove and therefore effective management strategies may require understanding visitor behavior. INDEX WORDS: Hyla cinerea, Green treefrog, population management, Individual Based Modeling, population estimation.

@mastersthesis{fouts_effects_2014,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	title = {Effects if {Fire} {Management} {Practices} on the {Amphibians} and {Reptiles} of {Great} {Smoky} {Mountains} {National} {Park}},
	abstract = {Information regarding the effects of fire management practices on reptiles and amphibians is important for sound management decisions. We examined those effects by conducting surveys of stream plethodontids and upland reptiles, as well as examining the influence of fire on microclimate and modeled reptile activity periods in the Southern Appalachians. The results suggest fire application is associated with decreased abundance of large desmognathine salamanders, resulting in an ecological release of Euycea spp. Abundance of forest floor lizards was positively correlated with fire application. Fire effects on microclimate and models of lizard thermal activity windows suggest a relationship between fire and increased daily activity periods for lizards, though we caution some parameters in that model were not directly measured in this study.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Fouts, Kevin Lindsey},
	year = {2014},
}

Information regarding the effects of fire management practices on reptiles and amphibians is important for sound management decisions. We examined those effects by conducting surveys of stream plethodontids and upland reptiles, as well as examining the influence of fire on microclimate and modeled reptile activity periods in the Southern Appalachians. The results suggest fire application is associated with decreased abundance of large desmognathine salamanders, resulting in an ecological release of Euycea spp. Abundance of forest floor lizards was positively correlated with fire application. Fire effects on microclimate and models of lizard thermal activity windows suggest a relationship between fire and increased daily activity periods for lizards, though we caution some parameters in that model were not directly measured in this study.

@mastersthesis{mercurio_relationship_2014,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	title = {The {Relationship} {Between} {Invasive} {Aquatic} {Plants}, {Cyanotoxins}, and {Freshwater} {Turtles} in the {Southeastern} {United} {States}},
	abstract = {We explore how the invasive aquatic plant Hydrilla verticillata may impact freshwater turtles. We used a laboratory feeding trial to show that painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) could develop vacuolar myelinopathy (VM), a neurologic disease caused by an undescribed cyanotoxin produced by a cyanobacterium commonly found on Hydrilla. We also estimated patch occupancy patterns of turtles in five reservoirs to determine if Hydrilla invasion affects turtle habitat use or abundance. Hydrilla was positively associated with the detection probability of painted turtles and yellow-bellied sliders (Trachemys scripta) and positively associated with patch occupancy of common musk turtles (Sternotherus odoratus), indicating Hydrilla density is likely positively influencing patch abundance of these three turtle species. Hydrilla was not correlated with detection or occupancy of common snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina). These results suggest Hydrilla is positively affecting habitat use or abundance of turtles inhabiting reservoirs; however, if occupancy of Hydrilla invaded habitats increases turtle exposure to cyanotoxins, then Hydrilla invasions may be creating an ecological trap for turtle populations.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Mercurio, Albert Donald},
	year = {2014},
}

We explore how the invasive aquatic plant Hydrilla verticillata may impact freshwater turtles. We used a laboratory feeding trial to show that painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) could develop vacuolar myelinopathy (VM), a neurologic disease caused by an undescribed cyanotoxin produced by a cyanobacterium commonly found on Hydrilla. We also estimated patch occupancy patterns of turtles in five reservoirs to determine if Hydrilla invasion affects turtle habitat use or abundance. Hydrilla was positively associated with the detection probability of painted turtles and yellow-bellied sliders (Trachemys scripta) and positively associated with patch occupancy of common musk turtles (Sternotherus odoratus), indicating Hydrilla density is likely positively influencing patch abundance of these three turtle species. Hydrilla was not correlated with detection or occupancy of common snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina). These results suggest Hydrilla is positively affecting habitat use or abundance of turtles inhabiting reservoirs; however, if occupancy of Hydrilla invaded habitats increases turtle exposure to cyanotoxins, then Hydrilla invasions may be creating an ecological trap for turtle populations.

@mastersthesis{stohlgren_eastern_2013,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	title = {{EASTERN} {DIAMONDBACK} {RATTLESNAKES}: {USING} {OCCUPANCY} {AND} {POPULATION} {MODELS} {TO} {DIRECT} {MANAGEMENT}},
	abstract = {Eastern diamondback rattlesnakes (Crotalus adamanteus) are declining throughout their range. We used occupancy and population models to help direct future management objectives. Our occupancy analysis on Georgia’s barrier islands indicated that the influence of habitat composition varied with scale. The area of maritime forest negatively influenced occupancy rates at the 500- and 1000-m spatial scale, while the area of secondary dune habitat positively influenced occupancy rates at the 1000-m spatial scale. Landscape composition did not appear to influence occupancy rates at the 250-m spatial scale. Coastal management for eastern diamondback rattlesnakes should focus on protecting large tracts of secondary dune habitat. Our stage-based population models indicated that population growth was most sensitive to changes in adult survival rate. Management strategies for eastern diamondback rattlesnakes should aim to increase adult survival rate by reducing anthropogenic threats such as road mortality, collection for rattlesnake roundups, and malicious killings.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Stohlgren, Kevin Michael},
	year = {2013},
}

Eastern diamondback rattlesnakes (Crotalus adamanteus) are declining throughout their range. We used occupancy and population models to help direct future management objectives. Our occupancy analysis on Georgia’s barrier islands indicated that the influence of habitat composition varied with scale. The area of maritime forest negatively influenced occupancy rates at the 500- and 1000-m spatial scale, while the area of secondary dune habitat positively influenced occupancy rates at the 1000-m spatial scale. Landscape composition did not appear to influence occupancy rates at the 250-m spatial scale. Coastal management for eastern diamondback rattlesnakes should focus on protecting large tracts of secondary dune habitat. Our stage-based population models indicated that population growth was most sensitive to changes in adult survival rate. Management strategies for eastern diamondback rattlesnakes should aim to increase adult survival rate by reducing anthropogenic threats such as road mortality, collection for rattlesnake roundups, and malicious killings.

@phdthesis{cecala_role_2012,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	type = {Ph.{D}. {Dissertation}},
	title = {The {Role} of {Behavior} in {Influencing} {Headwater} {Salamander} {Responses} to {Anthropogenic} {Development}},
	copyright = {All rights reserved},
	abstract = {Evolutionary theory predicts that animals have evolved to move in response to a suite of cues that maximize animal survival and growth while minimizing risk of injury or mortality. When humans modify environments, new conditions can suddenly yield maladaptive behavioral responses to cues that were adaptive in undisturbed environments. Changes in behavior can alter animal movement patterns impacting patterns of occupancy among habitats and fragment populations. My objectives were to determine which environmental features best predict salamander occupancy in an exurban region of the southern Appalachian Mountains and describe the behavioral mechanisms driving observed stream salamander distributions. Headwater streams generally have dense canopy cover that limits direct light penetration and regulates temperature and humidity known to affect salamander behavior. Therefore, I predicted that canopy cover would be an important predictor of stream salamander occupancy and behavior. A regional survey of stream salamander occupancy was conducted in the Little Tennessee River basin with the Coweeta Long Term Ecological Research site. Of a variety of factors and scales, upstream riparian forest and canopy cover were the two most important predictors of stream salamander occupancy. Because deforestation increases light penetration to streams, I performed controlled laboratory and field experiments to determine if salamanders exhibited consistent behavioral responses to light under a range of environmental conditions and experience with high-light environments. Salamander larvae generally exhibited negative phototaxis that was exacerbated by the absence of refuge. Individuals with prior experience with high-light conditions exhibited weaker responses to light suggesting that salamanders may be capable of adapting to high-light environments. Lastly, we tested whether negative phototaxis could negatively influence natural behaviors in a field environment by surveying homing behavior across canopy gaps. All salamander life stages were unwilling to cross even small canopy gaps. Because streams are bisected frequently by canopy gaps for a variety of purposes, the accumulation of these small land-use changes and their effects have the potential to profoundly reduce connectivity among populations even in the absence of additional habitat alteration. This dissertation demonstrates the importance of considering the consequences of behavior in determining how disturbance influences populations.},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Cecala, Kristen M},
	collaborator = {Maerz, John C},
	year = {2012},
	note = {Publication Title: Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources
Volume: Ph.D.},
}

Evolutionary theory predicts that animals have evolved to move in response to a suite of cues that maximize animal survival and growth while minimizing risk of injury or mortality. When humans modify environments, new conditions can suddenly yield maladaptive behavioral responses to cues that were adaptive in undisturbed environments. Changes in behavior can alter animal movement patterns impacting patterns of occupancy among habitats and fragment populations. My objectives were to determine which environmental features best predict salamander occupancy in an exurban region of the southern Appalachian Mountains and describe the behavioral mechanisms driving observed stream salamander distributions. Headwater streams generally have dense canopy cover that limits direct light penetration and regulates temperature and humidity known to affect salamander behavior. Therefore, I predicted that canopy cover would be an important predictor of stream salamander occupancy and behavior. A regional survey of stream salamander occupancy was conducted in the Little Tennessee River basin with the Coweeta Long Term Ecological Research site. Of a variety of factors and scales, upstream riparian forest and canopy cover were the two most important predictors of stream salamander occupancy. Because deforestation increases light penetration to streams, I performed controlled laboratory and field experiments to determine if salamanders exhibited consistent behavioral responses to light under a range of environmental conditions and experience with high-light environments. Salamander larvae generally exhibited negative phototaxis that was exacerbated by the absence of refuge. Individuals with prior experience with high-light conditions exhibited weaker responses to light suggesting that salamanders may be capable of adapting to high-light environments. Lastly, we tested whether negative phototaxis could negatively influence natural behaviors in a field environment by surveying homing behavior across canopy gaps. All salamander life stages were unwilling to cross even small canopy gaps. Because streams are bisected frequently by canopy gaps for a variety of purposes, the accumulation of these small land-use changes and their effects have the potential to profoundly reduce connectivity among populations even in the absence of additional habitat alteration. This dissertation demonstrates the importance of considering the consequences of behavior in determining how disturbance influences populations.

@phdthesis{ruyle_all_2012,
	address = {Athens, Georgia},
	type = {Ph.{D}. {Dissertation}},
	title = {All of {Your} {Eggs} in {One} {Basket}: {Conservation} of {A} {Microendemic} {Endangered} {Species}},
	abstract = {Effective conservation of endangered wildlife requires a multi-disciplinary understanding of issues. Ecological knowledge of species combined with the effects of human activities on those species should be applied when developing conservation programs. Conservation efforts need to be evaluated for their effectiveness in meeting both ecological and social requirements for protection of species and impacts on local human populations. My dissertation sought to contribute to conservation efforts of Central America iguanas by using traditional ecological studies for foundational knowledge of a critically endangered species, Ctenosaura melanosterna, and examining the impact of humans living with that species. Additionally, I evaluated iguana farming as a conservation strategy meant to benefit local populations as well as protect iguanas. Specifically, I examined four different sites of varying degrees of human activities and the impact of those activities on C. melanosterna in regards to tick loads, tail loss frequency, behavior and density. Tick loads were correlated to ctenosaur density and tail loss frequency was correlated to presence of domestic animals. Behaviors changed to be bolder with human presence and densities of ctenosaurs were highest at sites with humans, but no domestic animals. We found human impacts depend on availability of food subsidies as well as presence of domestic animals. We provide a study on the growth and survival of C. melanosterna that will serve as a baseline for the species in monitoring programs. We also conducted a population viability analysis that suggested the species may be in decline despite conservation protection. Finally, we evaluate a conservation strategy aimed at providing alternative income, an inexpensive protein source, and alleviation of hunting pressures on wild iguanid populations. We found little evidence that this strategy is meeting any of the proposed goals and may in fact be detrimental to conservation goals. We argue that farms may actually work against conservation by encouraging animals to be sold into the pet trade, and possibly putting wild populations in danger from release of farm animals that may carry parasites or disease because they were brought in as stock from other areas or as a consequence of farming practices.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Ruyle, Leslie Eileen},
	year = {2012},
}

Effective conservation of endangered wildlife requires a multi-disciplinary understanding of issues. Ecological knowledge of species combined with the effects of human activities on those species should be applied when developing conservation programs. Conservation efforts need to be evaluated for their effectiveness in meeting both ecological and social requirements for protection of species and impacts on local human populations. My dissertation sought to contribute to conservation efforts of Central America iguanas by using traditional ecological studies for foundational knowledge of a critically endangered species, Ctenosaura melanosterna, and examining the impact of humans living with that species. Additionally, I evaluated iguana farming as a conservation strategy meant to benefit local populations as well as protect iguanas. Specifically, I examined four different sites of varying degrees of human activities and the impact of those activities on C. melanosterna in regards to tick loads, tail loss frequency, behavior and density. Tick loads were correlated to ctenosaur density and tail loss frequency was correlated to presence of domestic animals. Behaviors changed to be bolder with human presence and densities of ctenosaurs were highest at sites with humans, but no domestic animals. We found human impacts depend on availability of food subsidies as well as presence of domestic animals. We provide a study on the growth and survival of C. melanosterna that will serve as a baseline for the species in monitoring programs. We also conducted a population viability analysis that suggested the species may be in decline despite conservation protection. Finally, we evaluate a conservation strategy aimed at providing alternative income, an inexpensive protein source, and alleviation of hunting pressures on wild iguanid populations. We found little evidence that this strategy is meeting any of the proposed goals and may in fact be detrimental to conservation goals. We argue that farms may actually work against conservation by encouraging animals to be sold into the pet trade, and possibly putting wild populations in danger from release of farm animals that may carry parasites or disease because they were brought in as stock from other areas or as a consequence of farming practices.

@mastersthesis{crawford_mortality_2011,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	title = {Mortality and management: {Assessing} diamondback terrapins ({Malaclemys} terrapin) on the {Jekyll} {Island} {Causeway}},
	copyright = {All rights reserved},
	abstract = {onservation of declining species relies on identifying threats, predicting their impacts, and mitigating these risks with specific solutions. Diamondback terrapins (Malaclemys terrapin) are declining or of unknown status across the majority of their range due to multiple anthropogenic threats, including road mortality of adult females. This thesis assessed the patterns of road mortality on a heavily used causeway leading to Jekyll Island, Georgia and modeled terrapin population growth using current estimates of road mortality and nest predation. Terrapin-vehicle collisions were concentrated spatially and temporally based on predictable cues. We predicted substantial declines in the terrapin population near Jekyll Island given current threat levels. Population growth was most sensitive to changes in adult survival, so management should prioritize the reduction of road mortality. These results yield a firmer understanding of the characteristics and probable impacts of road mortality on terrapin populations and can influence mitigation strategies for this and other causeways.},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Crawford, Brian A},
	year = {2011},
	note = {Pages: 76
Publication Title: Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources
Volume: Masters of},
	keywords = {Malaclemys terrapin, road, turtle},
}

onservation of declining species relies on identifying threats, predicting their impacts, and mitigating these risks with specific solutions. Diamondback terrapins (Malaclemys terrapin) are declining or of unknown status across the majority of their range due to multiple anthropogenic threats, including road mortality of adult females. This thesis assessed the patterns of road mortality on a heavily used causeway leading to Jekyll Island, Georgia and modeled terrapin population growth using current estimates of road mortality and nest predation. Terrapin-vehicle collisions were concentrated spatially and temporally based on predictable cues. We predicted substantial declines in the terrapin population near Jekyll Island given current threat levels. Population growth was most sensitive to changes in adult survival, so management should prioritize the reduction of road mortality. These results yield a firmer understanding of the characteristics and probable impacts of road mortality on terrapin populations and can influence mitigation strategies for this and other causeways.

@phdthesis{devore_exercise_2011,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	type = {Ph.{D}. {Dissertation}},
	title = {An exercise in complexity: indirect influences of invasion by an exotic grass ({Microstegium} vimineum) on forest floor food webs},
	copyright = {All rights reserved},
	abstract = {Plants play a major role in the construction and maintenance of ecosystems, supporting green food webs through herbivory and brown food webs through detrital inputs, affecting abiotic habitat variables, and influencing energy flow through these systems by changing the structural context in which trophic transfers take place. Alterations in these communities, such as those following plant invasion, may therefore affect consumers within impacted habitats. However, the multifaceted roles of plants makes the nature and strength of these effects difficult to predict. This dissertation explores detritally and structurally-mediated effects through which invasion by the Asian grass Microstegium vimineum influences forest floor consumers through investigating belowground C dynamics, abiotic parameters, energy flow, and the growth and survival of 3200 American toads, 800 southern leopard frogs, and 200 eastern newts across eight independent invasion fronts. The mechanisms behind observed effects were further explored through manipulations of the presence of lycosid spider predators and short-term foraging and survival trials within paired invaded and uninvaded enclosures. Belowground, this plant was found to influence abiotic habitat parameters and carbon dynamics, potentially contributing to observed effects on the production of microarthropods. However, it also serves as an important basal resource, making it likely that bottom-up influences of this plant are a consequence of changes in detrital communites in invaded habitats rather than resource sequestration of nonindigenous plant tissues. Investigation of the mechanisms through which stilt grass influences the American toad demonstrated that structural changes initiated a contextually-mediated dampening of intraguild predation rates among lycosid spiders, increasing their survival, and thereby augmenting predation pressure on metamorphic toads. Interspecific comparisons of the effects of invasion on three amphibians utilizing disparate metamorphic strategies revealed that the nature of the influence of invasion may be predicted by the metamorphic strategy of the species in question, as small, actively foraging toads are susceptible to top-down pressures while larger, sit-and-wait leopard frogs are sensitive to bottom-up effects and cryptic, toxic eastern newts did not respond to trophic effects. This research demonstrates that invasion indirectly affects consumers through alterations in detrital inputs and habitat structure, although the nature and strength of these effects varies interspecifically.},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {DeVore, Jayna Lynn},
	collaborator = {Maerz, John C},
	year = {2011},
	note = {Issue: 201112
Pages: 187
Publication Title: Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources
Volume: Ph.D.},
}

Plants play a major role in the construction and maintenance of ecosystems, supporting green food webs through herbivory and brown food webs through detrital inputs, affecting abiotic habitat variables, and influencing energy flow through these systems by changing the structural context in which trophic transfers take place. Alterations in these communities, such as those following plant invasion, may therefore affect consumers within impacted habitats. However, the multifaceted roles of plants makes the nature and strength of these effects difficult to predict. This dissertation explores detritally and structurally-mediated effects through which invasion by the Asian grass Microstegium vimineum influences forest floor consumers through investigating belowground C dynamics, abiotic parameters, energy flow, and the growth and survival of 3200 American toads, 800 southern leopard frogs, and 200 eastern newts across eight independent invasion fronts. The mechanisms behind observed effects were further explored through manipulations of the presence of lycosid spider predators and short-term foraging and survival trials within paired invaded and uninvaded enclosures. Belowground, this plant was found to influence abiotic habitat parameters and carbon dynamics, potentially contributing to observed effects on the production of microarthropods. However, it also serves as an important basal resource, making it likely that bottom-up influences of this plant are a consequence of changes in detrital communites in invaded habitats rather than resource sequestration of nonindigenous plant tissues. Investigation of the mechanisms through which stilt grass influences the American toad demonstrated that structural changes initiated a contextually-mediated dampening of intraguild predation rates among lycosid spiders, increasing their survival, and thereby augmenting predation pressure on metamorphic toads. Interspecific comparisons of the effects of invasion on three amphibians utilizing disparate metamorphic strategies revealed that the nature of the influence of invasion may be predicted by the metamorphic strategy of the species in question, as small, actively foraging toads are susceptible to top-down pressures while larger, sit-and-wait leopard frogs are sensitive to bottom-up effects and cryptic, toxic eastern newts did not respond to trophic effects. This research demonstrates that invasion indirectly affects consumers through alterations in detrital inputs and habitat structure, although the nature and strength of these effects varies interspecifically.

@mastersthesis{trice_investigating_2011,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	title = {{INVESTIGATING} {ENERGY} {FLOW} {PATHWAYS} {THROUGH} {A} {HEADWATER} {TOP} {PREDATOR}: {FOOD} {WEBS}, {PREY} {AVAILABILITY} {AND} {INDIVIDUAL} {VARIATION}},
	abstract = {Little is known about the trophic ecology of headwater stream salamanders beyond basic diet snapshots. These important predators likely drive numerous ecosystem functions. During a two-year study period, I investigated the seasonal changes and species-specific differences in three distinct headwater stream salamander species (Desmognathus quadramaculatus, Desmognathus ocoee and Eurycea cirrigera). Through the application of stable isotopes, mixing models, gut content analysis, and biomass estimates of both salamanders and their prey, I provided an evaluation of headwater stream spatial and temporal variation, as well as the trophic ecology of salamanders, within the headwaters of the Etowah River watershed.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Trice, Amy Elaine},
	year = {2011},
}

Little is known about the trophic ecology of headwater stream salamanders beyond basic diet snapshots. These important predators likely drive numerous ecosystem functions. During a two-year study period, I investigated the seasonal changes and species-specific differences in three distinct headwater stream salamander species (Desmognathus quadramaculatus, Desmognathus ocoee and Eurycea cirrigera). Through the application of stable isotopes, mixing models, gut content analysis, and biomass estimates of both salamanders and their prey, I provided an evaluation of headwater stream spatial and temporal variation, as well as the trophic ecology of salamanders, within the headwaters of the Etowah River watershed.

@phdthesis{davis_hematological_2010,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	type = {Ph.{D}. {Dissertation}},
	title = {The {Hematological} {Response} of {Amphibians} to {Stress} and {Its} {Implications} for {Research}, {Management}, and {Conservation}},
	abstract = {Populations of free-living animals frequently encounter natural and human-driven environmental variation that can affect their physiology and ultimately their long-term viability. In some cases, animals can experience physiological manifestations of such variation long before effects on more traditional population parameters are realized. One component of physiology that is useful for ascertaining how animals cope with such variation is their stress level. Chronically high stress levels can affect the performance of animals by reducing growth rates, long-term survival or increasing disease vulnerability. With this in mind, my dissertation research examines how natural and anthropogenic environmental variation affects stress levels in vertebrates, using amphibians as model subjects. To assess stress levels, investigators traditionally measure the concentration of stress hormones (corticosterone in birds, reptiles and amphibians) in blood plasma of subjects, although this can be logistically difficult because of the rapid response time of hormones and high volume of blood needed for the test. An alternative approach capitalizes on the stress hormone’s effect on the host’s circulating white blood cells, and in fact this cellular approach has advantages over direct hormone sampling because it is not as time sensitive and requires much smaller blood samples. Although this cellular method is gaining in popularity among wildlife researchers interested in quantifying stress, it has encountered some resistance in the scientific literature, partly stemming from a poor understanding of the relationship between stress hormones and blood cells. My thesis aimed to address this information gap. Major findings included: 1) a literature review showing how stress causes changes in numbers of circulating white blood cells such that the ratio of neutrophils to lymphocytes (N:L ratio) rises and that this effect is conserved across all vertebrate taxa, 2) experimental administration of stress hormone to salamanders causes a rise in N:L ratios, 3) bringing wild salamanders into captivity causes increases in N:L ratios, 4) rearing salamanders from eggs in crowded conditions causes high N:L ratios in surviving metamorphs, 5) infection with chytridiomycosis can cause changes in blood cell counts that resemble effects of stress, and 6) that amphibians reared in captivity have similar responses to stress as do wild individuals, which justifies the use of captive-rearing initiatives for amphibian conservation. The collective projects in this thesis should not only serve to establish the hematological approach to measuring stress for ecologists, but also to highlight the importance of considering the physiology of the animal when drawing conclusions from research projects or when making decisions for management and conservation of wildlife.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Davis, Andrew K},
	year = {2010},
}

Populations of free-living animals frequently encounter natural and human-driven environmental variation that can affect their physiology and ultimately their long-term viability. In some cases, animals can experience physiological manifestations of such variation long before effects on more traditional population parameters are realized. One component of physiology that is useful for ascertaining how animals cope with such variation is their stress level. Chronically high stress levels can affect the performance of animals by reducing growth rates, long-term survival or increasing disease vulnerability. With this in mind, my dissertation research examines how natural and anthropogenic environmental variation affects stress levels in vertebrates, using amphibians as model subjects. To assess stress levels, investigators traditionally measure the concentration of stress hormones (corticosterone in birds, reptiles and amphibians) in blood plasma of subjects, although this can be logistically difficult because of the rapid response time of hormones and high volume of blood needed for the test. An alternative approach capitalizes on the stress hormone’s effect on the host’s circulating white blood cells, and in fact this cellular approach has advantages over direct hormone sampling because it is not as time sensitive and requires much smaller blood samples. Although this cellular method is gaining in popularity among wildlife researchers interested in quantifying stress, it has encountered some resistance in the scientific literature, partly stemming from a poor understanding of the relationship between stress hormones and blood cells. My thesis aimed to address this information gap. Major findings included: 1) a literature review showing how stress causes changes in numbers of circulating white blood cells such that the ratio of neutrophils to lymphocytes (N:L ratio) rises and that this effect is conserved across all vertebrate taxa, 2) experimental administration of stress hormone to salamanders causes a rise in N:L ratios, 3) bringing wild salamanders into captivity causes increases in N:L ratios, 4) rearing salamanders from eggs in crowded conditions causes high N:L ratios in surviving metamorphs, 5) infection with chytridiomycosis can cause changes in blood cell counts that resemble effects of stress, and 6) that amphibians reared in captivity have similar responses to stress as do wild individuals, which justifies the use of captive-rearing initiatives for amphibian conservation. The collective projects in this thesis should not only serve to establish the hematological approach to measuring stress for ecologists, but also to highlight the importance of considering the physiology of the animal when drawing conclusions from research projects or when making decisions for management and conservation of wildlife.

@phdthesis{milanovich_modeling_2010,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	type = {Ph.{D}. {Dissertation}},
	title = {Modeling the {Current} and {Future} {Roles} of {Stream} {Salamanders} in {Headwater} {Streams}},
	copyright = {All rights reserved},
	abstract = {Communities are shaped by environmental conditions and the interactions within those environments, and changes in community composition or dynamics will in turn affect the environment through alteration of ecosystem processes. With humans rapidly altering ecosystems, predicting how environmental changes may lead to species losses, and how those biotic changes will feedback on ecosystem processes has emerged as a critical challenge. The southern Appalachian Mountains are a global hotspot for stream plethodontids, which are the numerically dominant vertebrate predators of high-elevation first order streams, and as such are hypothesized to be influential in a number of ecosystem processes. The objectives of this dissertation were to determine how projected shifts in salamander-community composition resulting from climate change may affect the retention of nutrients within first-and second-order streams. To meet this objective, elemental mass and excretion rates of salamanders was quantified to estimate the amount of nutrients captured and exported by a stream-salamander community, predictive models of species loss under climate-change scenarios were generated, and experiments were used to determine whether predicted species losses altered nutrient retention or whether compensation by other salamander species may occur. Research was conducted within the Coweeta Hydrological Laboratory basin (NC, USA). Plethodontids showed variation in elemental stoichiometry and relationships between body stoichiometry, body size, and excretion stoichiometry. Larval plethodontids were significant nutrient reservoirs when compared to other stream taxa, which implies that they are important to stream nutrient retention and nutrient cycling within streams. Excretion rates were low, but densities were high, and preliminary evidence indicates that plethodontids play a large role in re- release of nutrients. Models project a decline in suitable habitat associated with climate change scenarios for most currently dominant salamander species within the Coweeta basin, potentially affecting their role in nutrient retention. Furthermore, our results suggest that subordinate plethodontid species are able to compensate for species losses with respect to nutrient retention if their densities increase. Since plethodontids exhibit high diversity in the region and are significant contributors to a number of ecosystem processes, these projections identify a significant potential change to ecosystem function in southern Appalachian headwater streams.},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Milanovich, Joseph R},
	year = {2010},
	note = {Publication Title: Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources
Volume: Ph.D.},
}

Communities are shaped by environmental conditions and the interactions within those environments, and changes in community composition or dynamics will in turn affect the environment through alteration of ecosystem processes. With humans rapidly altering ecosystems, predicting how environmental changes may lead to species losses, and how those biotic changes will feedback on ecosystem processes has emerged as a critical challenge. The southern Appalachian Mountains are a global hotspot for stream plethodontids, which are the numerically dominant vertebrate predators of high-elevation first order streams, and as such are hypothesized to be influential in a number of ecosystem processes. The objectives of this dissertation were to determine how projected shifts in salamander-community composition resulting from climate change may affect the retention of nutrients within first-and second-order streams. To meet this objective, elemental mass and excretion rates of salamanders was quantified to estimate the amount of nutrients captured and exported by a stream-salamander community, predictive models of species loss under climate-change scenarios were generated, and experiments were used to determine whether predicted species losses altered nutrient retention or whether compensation by other salamander species may occur. Research was conducted within the Coweeta Hydrological Laboratory basin (NC, USA). Plethodontids showed variation in elemental stoichiometry and relationships between body stoichiometry, body size, and excretion stoichiometry. Larval plethodontids were significant nutrient reservoirs when compared to other stream taxa, which implies that they are important to stream nutrient retention and nutrient cycling within streams. Excretion rates were low, but densities were high, and preliminary evidence indicates that plethodontids play a large role in re- release of nutrients. Models project a decline in suitable habitat associated with climate change scenarios for most currently dominant salamander species within the Coweeta basin, potentially affecting their role in nutrient retention. Furthermore, our results suggest that subordinate plethodontid species are able to compensate for species losses with respect to nutrient retention if their densities increase. Since plethodontids exhibit high diversity in the region and are significant contributors to a number of ecosystem processes, these projections identify a significant potential change to ecosystem function in southern Appalachian headwater streams.

@mastersthesis{sterrett_ecology_2009,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	title = {{THE} {ECOLOGY} {AND} {INFLUENCE} {OF} {LAND} {USE} {ON} {RIVER} {TURTLES} {IN} {SOUTHWEST} {GEORGIA}},
	abstract = {Human activities such as agriculture are a major factor influencing the current distribution and abundances of species. I used two survey methods, hoop trapping and snorkeling, to obtain estimates of detectability for riverine turtles, and to measure the relationship between percent forest cover within a 287-m buffer and turtle abundance, species richness, and evenness along two streams in southwest Georgia. Further, I used radio-telemetry to study habitat use by Barbour’s map turtle (Graptemys barbouri), which is a species of conservation concern. Turtle evenness increased with increasing forest cover; however, turtle abundance declined with increasing forest cover as a result of an increased abundance of a generalist species, the yellowbellied slider. Barbour’s map turtle abundance increased with forest cover. Barbour’s map turtle used deep pools with large woody debris, suggesting that removing riparian forest cover may reduce debris inputs important to the Barbour’s map turtle and other aquatic species.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Sterrett, Sean Christopher},
	year = {2009},
}

Human activities such as agriculture are a major factor influencing the current distribution and abundances of species. I used two survey methods, hoop trapping and snorkeling, to obtain estimates of detectability for riverine turtles, and to measure the relationship between percent forest cover within a 287-m buffer and turtle abundance, species richness, and evenness along two streams in southwest Georgia. Further, I used radio-telemetry to study habitat use by Barbour’s map turtle (Graptemys barbouri), which is a species of conservation concern. Turtle evenness increased with increasing forest cover; however, turtle abundance declined with increasing forest cover as a result of an increased abundance of a generalist species, the yellowbellied slider. Barbour’s map turtle abundance increased with forest cover. Barbour’s map turtle used deep pools with large woody debris, suggesting that removing riparian forest cover may reduce debris inputs important to the Barbour’s map turtle and other aquatic species.

@mastersthesis{ruiz_assessment_2007,
	address = {Athens, Georgia, USA},
	title = {An {Assessment} of {A} {Constructed} {Wastewater} {Treatment} {Wetland} {Complex} as {Urban} {Amphibian} {Habitat}},
	abstract = {The rapid growth of urban areas is largely responsible for simultaneous increases in demand for potable water and habitat loss for wildlife. Constructed wetlands are an efficient way for growing communities to reclaim wastewater for reuse while providing potential wildlife habitat. However, discharging treated wastewater into wetlands may expose animals to pollutants, as well as unnatural temperature and nutrient gradients. My thesis examines diversity and performance of anuran tadpoles at Panhandle Road Constructed Wetlands in Clayton County, Georgia. I compared diversity, size at metamorphosis, and prevalence of visible abnormalities of tadpoles from PRCW and reference ponds that do not receive treated wastewater. In comparison to reference ponds, diversity and size at metamorphosis was similar or larger at PRCW. However, tadpoles in ponds initially receiving treated wastewater showed delayed development and visible symptoms of a novel hypercalcification disorder, suggesting that recognition of treatment wetlands as suitable wildlife habitat may be premature.},
	language = {en},
	school = {University of Georgia},
	author = {Ruiz, Alina Marcela},
	year = {2007},
}

The rapid growth of urban areas is largely responsible for simultaneous increases in demand for potable water and habitat loss for wildlife. Constructed wetlands are an efficient way for growing communities to reclaim wastewater for reuse while providing potential wildlife habitat. However, discharging treated wastewater into wetlands may expose animals to pollutants, as well as unnatural temperature and nutrient gradients. My thesis examines diversity and performance of anuran tadpoles at Panhandle Road Constructed Wetlands in Clayton County, Georgia. I compared diversity, size at metamorphosis, and prevalence of visible abnormalities of tadpoles from PRCW and reference ponds that do not receive treated wastewater. In comparison to reference ponds, diversity and size at metamorphosis was similar or larger at PRCW. However, tadpoles in ponds initially receiving treated wastewater showed delayed development and visible symptoms of a novel hypercalcification disorder, suggesting that recognition of treatment wetlands as suitable wildlife habitat may be premature.

@phdthesis{maerz_prey_2000,
	address = {Binghamton, New York, U.S.A.},
	type = {Ph.{D}. {Dissertation}},
	title = {Prey {Availability} and {Phenotypic} {Differences} {Between} {Local} {Terrestrial} {Salamander} {Populations}},
	copyright = {Database copyright ProQuest LLC; ProQuest does not claim copyright in the individual underlying works.},
	url = {https://www.proquest.com/docview/304665122/abstract/B48247D71D674947PQ/1?sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses},
	abstract = {Population comparisons are a common means of studying the processes that drive natural phenotypic variation. Accurately interpreting patterns of trait variation requires a clear understanding of the “context” in which a trait varies; that is the differences in the environments across which a trait varies, and correlated variation in other traits. Using a series of comparative studies between local populations of red-backed salamanders, Plethodon cinereus, I correlated life-history, behavioral, and morphological differences between local populations with differences in diet. Salamander diets from one site consisted of larger prey, particularly earthworms, than that found in salamander diets from another local site. The frequency of earthworms in salamander diets declined between rains, and salamander diets at the two sites were similar between rains. Periodic access to larger prey resulted in a greater amount of prey for salamanders at that site. Salamander tail condition and female fecundity were greater among salamanders from the “high-food” site than the “low-food” site. Both the numbers of eggs and mean egg size were greater at the high-food site, which is consistent with a direct effect of diet on fecundity differences between sites. Salamanders at high-food sites showed reduced or no territoriality while salamander behavior at the low-food site was consistent with food-based territoriality. Though low-food site salamanders took smaller prey, they had disproportionately larger heads than conspecifics from the high-food/large-prey site. This pattern contradicts other studies of holophagic predators that show positive relationships between prey size and geographic variation in head size. This suggests that factors besides prey size could drive geographic variation in head morphology. The difference in head morphology between populations may be related to the difference in the social environments, with disproportionately larger heads occurring in the territorial population. This hypothesis is consistent with other studies of geographic variation in lizards, which show correlated increases in size and territoriality in low-food environments. Establishing a robust hypothesis to explain the ‘apparently’ contradictory morphological differences between these populations was only possible with a clear understanding of differences in the environments of those populations and correlated variation in other traits including social behavior.},
	language = {English},
	urldate = {2025-06-14},
	school = {State University of New York at Binghamton},
	author = {Maerz, John Charles},
	year = {2000},
	note = {ISBN: 9780599749573},
	keywords = {Biological sciences, Ecology, Phenotypic differences, Plethodon cinerus, Prey availability, Salamander, Zoology},
}

Population comparisons are a common means of studying the processes that drive natural phenotypic variation. Accurately interpreting patterns of trait variation requires a clear understanding of the “context” in which a trait varies; that is the differences in the environments across which a trait varies, and correlated variation in other traits. Using a series of comparative studies between local populations of red-backed salamanders, Plethodon cinereus, I correlated life-history, behavioral, and morphological differences between local populations with differences in diet. Salamander diets from one site consisted of larger prey, particularly earthworms, than that found in salamander diets from another local site. The frequency of earthworms in salamander diets declined between rains, and salamander diets at the two sites were similar between rains. Periodic access to larger prey resulted in a greater amount of prey for salamanders at that site. Salamander tail condition and female fecundity were greater among salamanders from the “high-food” site than the “low-food” site. Both the numbers of eggs and mean egg size were greater at the high-food site, which is consistent with a direct effect of diet on fecundity differences between sites. Salamanders at high-food sites showed reduced or no territoriality while salamander behavior at the low-food site was consistent with food-based territoriality. Though low-food site salamanders took smaller prey, they had disproportionately larger heads than conspecifics from the high-food/large-prey site. This pattern contradicts other studies of holophagic predators that show positive relationships between prey size and geographic variation in head size. This suggests that factors besides prey size could drive geographic variation in head morphology. The difference in head morphology between populations may be related to the difference in the social environments, with disproportionately larger heads occurring in the territorial population. This hypothesis is consistent with other studies of geographic variation in lizards, which show correlated increases in size and territoriality in low-food environments. Establishing a robust hypothesis to explain the ‘apparently’ contradictory morphological differences between these populations was only possible with a clear understanding of differences in the environments of those populations and correlated variation in other traits including social behavior.

@mastersthesis{wareing_maternal_1997,
	address = {Binghamton, New York, U.S.A.},
	title = {Maternal care and kin recognition of the red-backed salamander, {Plethodon} cinereus},
	abstract = {Kin selection requires that organisms have a mechanism for directing benefits toward related individuals, so the ability to identify more genetically related individuals is clearly beneficial.  Some adult red-backed salamanders, Plethodon cinereus, show extended parental care and selective tolerance of juvenile salamanders in their territories.  We used the offspring of hormonally induced female red-backed salamanders, Plethodon cinereus, to determine whether females would show discrimination between their offspring and the offspring of another female, whether a female’s recognition of her offspring depended on long-term post-hatch experience with that offspring, and whether juvenile P. cinereus prefer a substrate containing their mother’s odors over a substrate that contained the odors of another postpartum female.  Females spent significantly more time in contact with their own young than the young of another female, and did not differ in their behavior toward offspring with whom they had long-term versus limited post-hatch experience.  Juveniles showed no preference for substrates containing their mother’s odor over substrates containing the odors of another female.  When combined with previous studies, these results suggest that P. cinereus can recognize their parents and offspring, that kin-recognition cues are probably chemical, and responses to social cues such as substrate borne chemicals might vary geographically depending on whether adult P. cinereus are territorial.},
	school = {State University of New York at Binghamton},
	author = {Wareing, Kathy},
	year = {1997},
}

Kin selection requires that organisms have a mechanism for directing benefits toward related individuals, so the ability to identify more genetically related individuals is clearly beneficial. Some adult red-backed salamanders, Plethodon cinereus, show extended parental care and selective tolerance of juvenile salamanders in their territories. We used the offspring of hormonally induced female red-backed salamanders, Plethodon cinereus, to determine whether females would show discrimination between their offspring and the offspring of another female, whether a female’s recognition of her offspring depended on long-term post-hatch experience with that offspring, and whether juvenile P. cinereus prefer a substrate containing their mother’s odors over a substrate that contained the odors of another postpartum female. Females spent significantly more time in contact with their own young than the young of another female, and did not differ in their behavior toward offspring with whom they had long-term versus limited post-hatch experience. Juveniles showed no preference for substrates containing their mother’s odor over substrates containing the odors of another female. When combined with previous studies, these results suggest that P. cinereus can recognize their parents and offspring, that kin-recognition cues are probably chemical, and responses to social cues such as substrate borne chemicals might vary geographically depending on whether adult P. cinereus are territorial.