@incollection{alim_hip_2004,
	title = {Hip {Hop} nation language},
	booktitle = {Language in the {USA}: {Themes} for the twenty-first century},
	publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
	author = {Alim, Sami H.},
	year = {2004},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
	pages = {387--409},
}

@incollection{bailey_invariant_1986,
	address = {Tuscaloosa, AL},
	title = {Invariant be in the {Lower} {South}},
	booktitle = {Language variety in the {South}: {Perspectives} in {Black} and {White}},
	publisher = {The University of Alabama Press},
	author = {Bailey, Guy and Bassett, Marvin},
	editor = {Montgomery, Michael and Bailey, Guy},
	year = {1986},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
	pages = {158--179},
}

@article{bailey_present_1985,
	title = {The present tense of be in {White} {Folk} speech in the {Southern} {United} {States}},
	volume = {6},
	journal = {English World-Wide},
	author = {Bailey, Guy and Maynor, Natalie},
	year = {1985},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
	pages = {199--216},
}

@incollection{bailey_invariant_1986,
	address = {Tuscaloosa, AL},
	title = {Invariant be in the {Lower} {South}},
	booktitle = {Language variety in the {South}: {Perspectives} in {Black} and {White}},
	publisher = {The University of Alabama Press},
	author = {Bailey, Guy and Bassett, Marvin},
	editor = {Montgomery, Michael and Bailey, Guy},
	year = {1986},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
	pages = {158--179},
}

@book{baugh_black_1983,
	address = {Austin},
	series = {Texas {Linguistics} {Series}},
	title = {Black street speech: {Its} history, structure, and survival},
	isbn = {978-0-292-70745-0 978-0-292-70743-6},
	shorttitle = {Black street speech},
	publisher = {University of Texas Press},
	author = {Baugh, John},
	year = {1983},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
}

@article{brewer_nonagreeing_1979,
	title = {Nonagreeing am and invariant be in early {Black} {English}},
	volume = {3},
	journal = {SECOL Bulletin},
	author = {Brewer, Jeutonne P},
	year = {1979},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
	pages = {81--100},
}

@article{clarke_search_1999,
	title = {The search for origins: {Habitual} aspect and {Newfoundland} {Vernacular} {English}},
	volume = {27},
	issn = {0075-4242, 1552-5457},
	url = {http://eng.sagepub.com/content/27/4/328},
	doi = {10.1177/00754249922004750},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2016-06-07},
	journal = {Journal of English Linguistics},
	author = {Clarke, Sandra},
	month = dec,
	year = {1999},
	keywords = {Copula, Habitual be, Subject contact relative},
	pages = {328--340},
}

@incollection{clarke_newfoundland_2008,
	address = {Berlin},
	title = {Newfoundland {English}: {Morphology} and syntax},
	volume = {2},
	isbn = {978-3-11-019718-1},
	shorttitle = {Newfoundland {English}},
	url = {http://www.degruyter.com/view/books/9783110175325/9783110175325.2.303/9783110175325.2.303.xml?format=EBOK},
	urldate = {2016-06-07},
	booktitle = {Varieties of {English}: {The} {Americas} and the {Caribbean}},
	publisher = {De Gruyter},
	author = {Clarke, Sandra},
	editor = {Schneider, Edgar W. and Schneider, Edgar W.},
	year = {2008},
	keywords = {2016 Seminar, Double comparatives, Embedded inversion, Invariant be},
	pages = {492--509},
}

@techreport{labov_study_1968,
	address = {New York},
	type = {{US} {Department} of {Health}, {Education} \& {Welfare}, {Office} of {Education}},
	title = {A study of the non-standard {English} of {Negro} and {Puerto} {Rican} speakers in {New} {York} {City}. {Vol}. 1: {Phonological} and grammatical analysis},
	number = {CRP-3288},
	institution = {Columbia University},
	author = {Labov, William and Cohen, Paul and Robins, Clarence and Lewis, John},
	year = {1968},
	keywords = {Done, Multiple modals, Negative concord, Negative inversion},
}

@phdthesis{dayton_grammatical_1996,
	title = {Grammatical categories of the verb in {African}-{American} {Vernacular} {English}},
	url = {http://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI9712915},
	school = {University of Pennsylvania},
	author = {Dayton, Elizabeth},
	month = jan,
	year = {1996},
	keywords = {Perfective done},
}

@phdthesis{dunlap_social_1973,
	address = {Atlanta, GA},
	type = {{PhD} dissertation},
	title = {Social aspects of a verbal form: native {Atlanta} fifth-grade speech - the present tense of be},
	school = {Emory University},
	author = {Dunlap, Howard G},
	year = {1973},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
}

@article{fasold_tense_1969,
	title = {Tense and the form be in {Black} {English}},
	volume = {45},
	issn = {0097-8507},
	url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/412334},
	doi = {10.2307/412334},
	abstract = {The Negro dialect, Black English, has a distinctive use of be as a main verb, expressing iteration rather than instantaneous or constant states. Although the Standard English phrases will be and would be can have a meaning similar to Black English be, phonological deletion of these modals cannot account for all occurrences of be in Black English. It is argued that the best analysis is one which recognizes only one verb to be, which can occur without tense.},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2016-09-14},
	journal = {Language},
	author = {Fasold, Ralph W.},
	year = {1969},
	keywords = {Habitual be, Invariant be},
	pages = {763--776},
}

The Negro dialect, Black English, has a distinctive use of be as a main verb, expressing iteration rather than instantaneous or constant states. Although the Standard English phrases will be and would be can have a meaning similar to Black English be, phonological deletion of these modals cannot account for all occurrences of be in Black English. It is argued that the best analysis is one which recognizes only one verb to be, which can occur without tense.

@book{fasold_tense_1972,
	address = {Arlington, VA},
	series = {Urban language series},
	title = {Tense marking in {Black} {English}: {A} linguistic and social analysis},
	isbn = {978-0-87281-031-0},
	number = {8},
	publisher = {Center for Applied Linguistics},
	author = {Fasold, Ralph W.},
	year = {1972},
	keywords = {Habitual be, Invariant be},
}

@article{green_aspectual_2000,
	title = {Aspectual be-type constructions and coercion in {African} {American} {English}},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {0925-854X},
	url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/23748550},
	abstract = {This paper examines aspectual be—type constructions in African American English. These constructions receive a habitual interpretation, but they are distinguished from simple tense generics in that they are not ambiguous between generic/habitual and capacity readings. The analysis proposed to account for these constructions is one in which aspectual be neutralizes the distinction between stage- and individual-level predicates. Following Kratzer (1995), I assume that stage-level predicates have a separate event argument associated with them, but individual-level predicates do not. Aspectual be forces individual-level predicates to take an eventuality argument which coerces them into stage-level predicates. The logical representations of these constructions are given a tripartite structure in which a habitual operator binds variables ranging over eventualities. The analysis can be extended to account for constructions in which permanently stable entities indicated by bare plural subjects occur with be—type predicates. The solution proposed here accounts for some well-known properties of aspectual be that have not been discussed in the literature.},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2017-04-06},
	journal = {Natural Language Semantics},
	author = {Green, Lisa},
	year = {2000},
	keywords = {Stressed BIN},
	pages = {1--25},
}

This paper examines aspectual be—type constructions in African American English. These constructions receive a habitual interpretation, but they are distinguished from simple tense generics in that they are not ambiguous between generic/habitual and capacity readings. The analysis proposed to account for these constructions is one in which aspectual be neutralizes the distinction between stage- and individual-level predicates. Following Kratzer (1995), I assume that stage-level predicates have a separate event argument associated with them, but individual-level predicates do not. Aspectual be forces individual-level predicates to take an eventuality argument which coerces them into stage-level predicates. The logical representations of these constructions are given a tripartite structure in which a habitual operator binds variables ranging over eventualities. The analysis can be extended to account for constructions in which permanently stable entities indicated by bare plural subjects occur with be—type predicates. The solution proposed here accounts for some well-known properties of aspectual be that have not been discussed in the literature.

@book{green_language_2011,
	address = {Cambridge},
	title = {Language and the {African} {American} child},
	publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
	author = {Green, Lisa J.},
	year = {2011},
	keywords = {Negative inversion, Split subjects},
}

@book{green_african_2002,
	address = {Cambridge},
	title = {African {American} {English}: {A} linguistic introduction},
	isbn = {978-0-521-81449-2 978-0-521-89138-7},
	shorttitle = {African {American} {English}},
	abstract = {"This authoritative introduction to African American English (AAE) is the first textbook to look at the grammar as a whole. Clearly organized, it describes patterns in the sentence structure, sound system, word formation and word use in AAE. The book uses linguistic description and data from conversation to explain that AAE is not a compilation of random deviations from mainstream English but that it is a rule-governed system. The textbook examines topics such as education, speech events in the secular and religious world, and the use of language in literature and the media to create black images. This much-needed book includes exercises to accompany each chapter and will be essential reading for students in linguistics, education, anthropology, African American studies and literature."--BOOK JACKET},
	publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
	author = {Green, Lisa J.},
	year = {2002},
	keywords = {African Americans, Bare got, Black English, Dialects, English language, Finna, Languages, Negative concord, Negative inversion, Split subjects, Stressed BIN, United States, Variation},
}

"This authoritative introduction to African American English (AAE) is the first textbook to look at the grammar as a whole. Clearly organized, it describes patterns in the sentence structure, sound system, word formation and word use in AAE. The book uses linguistic description and data from conversation to explain that AAE is not a compilation of random deviations from mainstream English but that it is a rule-governed system. The textbook examines topics such as education, speech events in the secular and religious world, and the use of language in literature and the media to create black images. This much-needed book includes exercises to accompany each chapter and will be essential reading for students in linguistics, education, anthropology, African American studies and literature."–BOOK JACKET

@phdthesis{harris_non-aspectual_2019,
	address = {New Haven, CT},
	type = {{PhD} dissertation},
	title = {The non-aspectual meaning of {African} {American} {English} 'aspect' markers},
	school = {Yale University},
	author = {Harris, Alysia Nicole},
	year = {2019},
	keywords = {Invariant be, Perfective done},
}

@article{harris_underlying_1982,
	title = {The underlying non-identity of {English} dialects: {A} look at the {Hiberno}-{English} verb phrase},
	volume = {6},
	journal = {Belfast working papers in language and linguistics},
	author = {Harris, John},
	year = {1982},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
	pages = {1--36},
}

@article{harris_expanding_1985,
	title = {Expanding the superstrate: habitual aspect markers in {Atlantic} {Englishes}},
	volume = {2},
	journal = {Sheffield Working Papers in Linguistics},
	author = {Harris, John},
	year = {1985},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
	pages = {72--97},
}

@book{henry_belfast_1995,
	address = {New York},
	series = {Oxford studies in comparative syntax},
	title = {Belfast {English} and standard {English}: {Dialect} variation and parameter setting},
	isbn = {978-0-19-508291-3 978-0-19-508292-0},
	shorttitle = {Belfast {English} and standard {English}},
	publisher = {Oxford University Press},
	author = {Henry, Alison},
	year = {1995},
	keywords = {2016 Seminar, Belfast (Northern Ireland), Dialects, Embedded inversion, English language, Northern Ireland Belfast, Social conditions},
}

@article{hill_habituative_1975,
	title = {The {Habituative} {Aspect} of {Verbs} in {Black} {English}, {Irish} {English}, and {Standard} {English}},
	volume = {50},
	issn = {0003-1283},
	url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/3088018},
	doi = {10.2307/3088018},
	number = {3/4},
	urldate = {2016-09-24},
	journal = {American Speech},
	author = {Hill, Archibald A.},
	year = {1975},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
	pages = {323--324},
}

@incollection{hollenbaugh_habitual_nodate,
	title = {Habitual be in {American} {English}},
	booktitle = {Festschrift for {Prof}. {Tim} {Stowell}},
	author = {Hollenbaugh, Ian},
}

@article{jones_toward_2015,
	title = {Toward a {Description} of {African} {American} {Vernacular} {English} {Dialect} {Regions} {Using} “{Black} {Twitter}”},
	volume = {90},
	issn = {0003-1283},
	url = {https://read.dukeupress.edu/american-speech/article/90/4/403/5470/Toward-a-Description-of-African-American},
	doi = {10.1215/00031283-3442117},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-10-19},
	journal = {American Speech},
	author = {Jones, Taylor},
	month = nov,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {403--440},
}

@book{jones-jackson_when_1987,
	address = {Athens, GA},
	title = {When roots die: {Endangered} traditions on the {Sea} {Islands}},
	isbn = {978-0-8203-4241-2},
	shorttitle = {When roots die},
	urldate = {2016-10-10},
	publisher = {University of Georgia Press},
	author = {Jones-Jackson, Patricia},
	year = {1987},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
}

@incollection{kallen_co-occurrence_1986,
	address = {Trinity College Dublin},
	title = {The co-occurrence of do and be in {Hiberno}-{English}},
	booktitle = {Perspectives on the {English} language in {Ireland}},
	publisher = {Center for Language and Communication Studies},
	author = {Kallen, Jeffrey L.},
	editor = {Harris, John and Little, David and Singleton},
	year = {1986},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
}

@incollection{labov_coexistent_1998,
	address = {London},
	title = {Coexistent systems in {African}-{American} vernacular {English}},
	isbn = {978-0-415-11732-6 978-0-415-11733-3},
	booktitle = {African-{American} {English}: {Structure}, history, and use},
	publisher = {Routledge},
	author = {Labov, William},
	editor = {Mufwene, Salikoko S. and Rickford, John R. and Bailey, Guy and Baugh, John},
	year = {1998},
	keywords = {African Americans, Americanisms, Black English, English language, Language, Social aspects, Stressed BIN, United States},
	pages = {110--153},
}

@techreport{labov_study_1968,
	address = {New York},
	type = {{US} {Department} of {Health}, {Education} \& {Welfare}, {Office} of {Education}},
	title = {A study of the non-standard {English} of {Negro} and {Puerto} {Rican} speakers in {New} {York} {City}. {Vol}. 1: {Phonological} and grammatical analysis},
	number = {CRP-3288},
	institution = {Columbia University},
	author = {Labov, William and Cohen, Paul and Robins, Clarence and Lewis, John},
	year = {1968},
	keywords = {Done, Multiple modals, Negative concord, Negative inversion},
}

@techreport{labov_study_1968,
	address = {New York},
	type = {{US} {Department} of {Health}, {Education} \& {Welfare}, {Office} of {Education}},
	title = {A study of the non-standard {English} of {Negro} and {Puerto} {Rican} speakers in {New} {York} {City}. {Vol}. 1: {Phonological} and grammatical analysis},
	number = {CRP-3288},
	institution = {Columbia University},
	author = {Labov, William and Cohen, Paul and Robins, Clarence and Lewis, John},
	year = {1968},
	keywords = {Done, Multiple modals, Negative concord, Negative inversion},
}

@article{loflin_note_1967,
	title = {A note on the deep structure of non-standard {English} in {Washington}, {D}.{C}.},
	volume = {1},
	journal = {Glossa},
	author = {Loflin, Marvin D.},
	year = {1967},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
	pages = {26--37},
}

@article{bailey_present_1985,
	title = {The present tense of be in {White} {Folk} speech in the {Southern} {United} {States}},
	volume = {6},
	journal = {English World-Wide},
	author = {Bailey, Guy and Maynor, Natalie},
	year = {1985},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
	pages = {199--216},
}

@article{montgomery_he_1999,
	title = {"{He} {Bes} {Took} {Up} with a {Yankee} {Girl} and {Moved} {Up} {There} to {New} {York}": {The} {Verb} bes in the {Carolinas} and {Its} {History}},
	volume = {74},
	issn = {1527-2133},
	shorttitle = {"{He} {Bes} {Took} {Up} with a {Yankee} {Girl} and {Moved} {Up} {There} to {New} {York}"},
	url = {https://muse.jhu.edu/article/2700},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2016-09-21},
	journal = {American Speech},
	author = {Montgomery, Michael and Mishoe, Margaret},
	year = {1999},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
	pages = {240--281},
}

@article{montgomery_he_1999,
	title = {"{He} {Bes} {Took} {Up} with a {Yankee} {Girl} and {Moved} {Up} {There} to {New} {York}": {The} {Verb} bes in the {Carolinas} and {Its} {History}},
	volume = {74},
	issn = {1527-2133},
	shorttitle = {"{He} {Bes} {Took} {Up} with a {Yankee} {Girl} and {Moved} {Up} {There} to {New} {York}"},
	url = {https://muse.jhu.edu/article/2700},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2016-09-21},
	journal = {American Speech},
	author = {Montgomery, Michael and Mishoe, Margaret},
	year = {1999},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
	pages = {240--281},
}

@incollection{mufwene_gullah_2013,
	address = {Leipzig},
	title = {Gullah},
	url = {http://ewave-atlas.org/languages/21},
	booktitle = {The electronic world atlas of varieties of {English}},
	publisher = {Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology},
	author = {Mufwene, Salikoko},
	editor = {Kortmann, Bernd and Lunkenheimer, Kerstin},
	year = {2013},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
}

@incollection{mufwene_gullah:_2008,
	address = {The Hague},
	title = {Gullah: morphology and syntax},
	volume = {2},
	booktitle = {Varieties of {English}: {The} {Americas} and the {Caribbean}},
	publisher = {Mouton de Gruyter},
	author = {Mufwene, Salikoko S.},
	editor = {Schneider, Edgar W.},
	year = {2008},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
	pages = {551--571},
}

@incollection{mufwene_gullahs_1997,
	address = {Tuscaloosa, AL},
	title = {Gullah's development: {Myth} and sociohistorical evidence},
	booktitle = {Language variety in the {South} revisited},
	publisher = {The University of Alabama Press},
	author = {Mufwene, Salikoko S.},
	editor = {Bernstein, Cynthia and Nunnally, Thomas and Sabino},
	year = {1997},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
	pages = {113--122},
}

@article{rickford_social_1986,
	title = {Social contact and linguistic diffusion: {Hiberno}-{English} and {New} {World} {Black} {English}},
	volume = {62},
	issn = {0097-8507},
	shorttitle = {Social {Contact} and {Linguistic} {Diffusion}},
	url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/414674},
	doi = {10.2307/414674},
	abstract = {The historical relation between Hiberno-English and New World Black English is a fruitful research site for exploring the interplay of internal and external factors in linguistic diffusion. A recent hypothesis that NWBE habitual be derives from HE is first assessed through attention to the history of Irish/African contact in colonial America and the Caribbean, and then critically evaluated against six alternatives. On the basis of internal and external considerations, a hypothesis which involves decreolization from creole does (be), but incorporates possible influences from Hibernian and British varieties of English, is regarded as the single most viable hypothesis. Directions for further research on this issue are indicated, and relevance to larger theoretical concerns is identified.},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2016-09-21},
	journal = {Language},
	author = {Rickford, John R.},
	year = {1986},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
	pages = {245--289},
}

The historical relation between Hiberno-English and New World Black English is a fruitful research site for exploring the interplay of internal and external factors in linguistic diffusion. A recent hypothesis that NWBE habitual be derives from HE is first assessed through attention to the history of Irish/African contact in colonial America and the Caribbean, and then critically evaluated against six alternatives. On the basis of internal and external considerations, a hypothesis which involves decreolization from creole does (be), but incorporates possible influences from Hibernian and British varieties of English, is regarded as the single most viable hypothesis. Directions for further research on this issue are indicated, and relevance to larger theoretical concerns is identified.

@article{rickford_number_1990,
	title = {Number delimitation in {Gullah}: {A} response to {Mufwene}},
	volume = {65},
	journal = {American Speech},
	author = {Rickford, John R.},
	year = {1990},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
	pages = {148--163},
}

@incollection{montgomery_invariant_1986,
	address = {Tuscaloosa, AL},
	title = {Invariant be in the {Lower} {South}},
	booktitle = {Language variety in the {South}: {Perspectives} in {Black} and {White}},
	publisher = {The University of Alabama Press},
	author = {Rickford, John R.},
	editor = {Montgomery, Michael and Bailey, Guy},
	year = {1986},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
	pages = {38--62},
}

@techreport{labov_study_1968,
	address = {New York},
	type = {{US} {Department} of {Health}, {Education} \& {Welfare}, {Office} of {Education}},
	title = {A study of the non-standard {English} of {Negro} and {Puerto} {Rican} speakers in {New} {York} {City}. {Vol}. 1: {Phonological} and grammatical analysis},
	number = {CRP-3288},
	institution = {Columbia University},
	author = {Labov, William and Cohen, Paul and Robins, Clarence and Lewis, John},
	year = {1968},
	keywords = {Done, Multiple modals, Negative concord, Negative inversion},
}

@article{sobin_lexical_2024,
	title = {The lexical source of \textit{{BIN}} and habitual \textit{be} in {\textless}span style="font-variant:small-caps;"{\textgreater}{African} {American} {English}{\textless}/span{\textgreater}},
	issn = {1368-0005, 1467-9612},
	shorttitle = {The lexical source of \textit{{BIN}} and habitual \textit{be} in {\textless}span style="font-variant},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/synt.12269},
	doi = {10.1111/synt.12269},
	abstract = {Abstract 
             
              Although various works on African American English (AAE) offer significant and insightful analyses of the semantic interpretation of its aspectual elements, including in particular stressed remote past 
              BIN 
              and habitual 
              be 
              ( 
              be 
              hab 
              ), the syntactic analysis of these elements is problematic. 
              BIN 
              and 
              be 
              hab 
              are claimed to be invariant lexical elements with fixed semantic values, and to not interact with INFL (Tense) as auxiliaries do, thus not displaying subject–verb agreement or undergoing any operations typical of finite auxiliaries. However, considerations including syntactic positioning, accompanying auxiliaries, patterns of verb affixation, and the formation of active and passive sentences point instead to 
              BIN 
              and 
              be 
              hab 
              being in most instances phonetic manifestations of any of the various ordinary auxiliary verbs 
              be 
              (progressive, passive, and copular), elements of the system of auxiliaries common to both AAE and Mainstream American English (MAE). The surface forms 
              BIN 
              and 
              be 
              are sufficient to trigger their special meanings in logical representation. Semantically dedicated lexical elements are unnecessary. The various interpretations of sentences containing these forms are due to constructional semantic interpretation of various combinations of surface elements. This analysis further reveals the existence of another AAE innovation, a fourth auxiliary verb 
              be 
              unique to AAE indicating simple past.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2024-07-19},
	journal = {Syntax},
	author = {Sobin, Nicholas},
	month = feb,
	year = {2024},
	pages = {synt.12269},
}

Abstract Although various works on African American English (AAE) offer significant and insightful analyses of the semantic interpretation of its aspectual elements, including in particular stressed remote past BIN and habitual be ( be hab ), the syntactic analysis of these elements is problematic. BIN and be hab are claimed to be invariant lexical elements with fixed semantic values, and to not interact with INFL (Tense) as auxiliaries do, thus not displaying subject–verb agreement or undergoing any operations typical of finite auxiliaries. However, considerations including syntactic positioning, accompanying auxiliaries, patterns of verb affixation, and the formation of active and passive sentences point instead to BIN and be hab being in most instances phonetic manifestations of any of the various ordinary auxiliary verbs be (progressive, passive, and copular), elements of the system of auxiliaries common to both AAE and Mainstream American English (MAE). The surface forms BIN and be are sufficient to trigger their special meanings in logical representation. Semantically dedicated lexical elements are unnecessary. The various interpretations of sentences containing these forms are due to constructional semantic interpretation of various combinations of surface elements. This analysis further reveals the existence of another AAE innovation, a fourth auxiliary verb be unique to AAE indicating simple past.

@incollection{weldon_gullah_2006,
	address = {Malden, MA},
	title = {Gullah {Gullah} islands ({Sea} {Island}, {SC}, {GA})},
	isbn = {978-1-4051-2108-8 978-1-4051-2109-5},
	booktitle = {American voices: {How} dialects differ from coast to coast},
	publisher = {Blackwell},
	author = {Weldon, Tracy L.},
	editor = {Wolfram, Walt and Ward, Ben},
	year = {2006},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
	pages = {178--182},
}

@book{wolfram_sociolinguistic_1969,
	address = {Washington, D.C.},
	title = {A sociolinguistic description of {Detroit} {Negro} speech},
	publisher = {Center for Applied Linguistics},
	author = {Wolfram, Walt},
	year = {1969},
	keywords = {Invariant be},
}