Regime Shifts, Resilience, and Biodiversity in Ecosystem Management. Folke, C., Carpenter, S., Walker, B., Scheffer, M., Elmqvist, T., Gunderson, L., & Holling, C. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 35(1):557–581, 2004.
Regime Shifts, Resilience, and Biodiversity in Ecosystem Management [link]Paper  doi  abstract   bibtex   
▪ Abstract We review the evidence of regime shifts in terrestrial and aquatic environments in relation to resilience of complex adaptive ecosystems and the functional roles of biological diversity in this context. The evidence reveals that the likelihood of regime shifts may increase when humans reduce resilience by such actions as removing response diversity, removing whole functional groups of species, or removing whole trophic levels; impacting on ecosystems via emissions of waste and pollutants and climate change; and altering the magnitude, frequency, and duration of disturbance regimes. The combined and often synergistic effects of those pressures can make ecosystems more vulnerable to changes that previously could be absorbed. As a consequence, ecosystems may suddenly shift from desired to less desired states in their capacity to generate ecosystem services. Active adaptive management and governance of resilience will be required to sustain desired ecosystem states and transform degraded ecosystems into fundamentally new and more desirable configurations.
@article{folke_regime_2004,
	title = {Regime {Shifts}, {Resilience}, and {Biodiversity} in {Ecosystem} {Management}},
	volume = {35},
	url = {https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.021103.105711},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.021103.105711},
	abstract = {▪ Abstract We review the evidence of regime shifts in terrestrial and aquatic environments in relation to resilience of complex adaptive ecosystems and the functional roles of biological diversity in this context. The evidence reveals that the likelihood of regime shifts may increase when humans reduce resilience by such actions as removing response diversity, removing whole functional groups of species, or removing whole trophic levels; impacting on ecosystems via emissions of waste and pollutants and climate change; and altering the magnitude, frequency, and duration of disturbance regimes. The combined and often synergistic effects of those pressures can make ecosystems more vulnerable to changes that previously could be absorbed. As a consequence, ecosystems may suddenly shift from desired to less desired states in their capacity to generate ecosystem services. Active adaptive management and governance of resilience will be required to sustain desired ecosystem states and transform degraded ecosystems into fundamentally new and more desirable configurations.},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics},
	author = {Folke, Carl and Carpenter, Steve and Walker, Brian and Scheffer, Marten and Elmqvist, Thomas and Gunderson, Lance and Holling, C.S.},
	year = {2004},
	keywords = {alternate states, complex adaptive systems, ecosystem services, regime shifts, response diversity},
	pages = {557--581},
}

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