Global Climate and the Distribution of Plant Biomes. Woodward, F. I., Lomas, M. R., & Kelly, C. K. 359(1450):1465–1476.
Global Climate and the Distribution of Plant Biomes [link]Paper  doi  abstract   bibtex   
Biomes are areas of vegetation that are characterized by the same life-form. Traditional definitions of biomes have also included either geographical or climatic descriptors. This approach describes a wide range of biomes that can be correlated with characteristic climatic conditions, or climatic envelopes. The application of remote sensing technology to the frequent observation of biomes has led to a move away from the often subjective definition of biomes to one that is objective. Carefully characterized observations of life-form, by satellite, have been used to reconsider biome classification and their climatic envelopes. Five major tree biomes can be recognized by satellites based on leaf longevity and morphology: needleleaf evergreen, broadleaf evergreen, needleleaf deciduous, broadleaf cold deciduous and broadleaf drought deciduous. Observations indicate that broadleaf drought deciduous vegetation grades substantially into broadleaf evergreen vegetation. The needleleaf deciduous biome occurs in the world's coldest climates, where summer drought and therefore a drought deciduous biome are absent. [\n] Traditional biome definitions are quite static, implying no change in their life-form composition with time, within their particular climatic envelopes. However, this is not the case where there has been global ingress of grasslands and croplands into forested vegetation. The global spread of grasses, a new superbiome, was probably initiated 30-45 Myr ago by an increase in global aridity, and was driven by the natural spread of the disturbances of fire and animal grazing. These disturbances have been further extended over the Holocene era by human activities that have increased the land areas available for domestic animal grazing and for growing crops. The current situation is that grasses now occur in most, if not all biomes, and in many areas they dominate and define the biome. Croplands are also increasing, defining a new and relatively recent component to the grassland super-biome. In the case of both grassland and croplands, various forms of disturbance, particularly frequent disturbance, lead to continued range extensions of the biomes. [Excerpt: Conclusions] Biomes have been defined traditionally by plant physiognomy and geographical distribution or climate. There has been a trend away from this non-observable biome type to one that is based on plant features that are wholly observable by remote sensing satellites. This offers the potential for objective classifications, although this may be difficult to achieve. The approach also offers a high frequency of repeat observations through the year, providing unrivalled large-scale measures of biome phenology and dynamics. Satellite observations, in addition to global fields of climate, indicate that there is only one biome with a unique climatic envelope: the deciduous needleleaf forest (figure 9). Although this biome escapes the cultivated biome there is clear overlap with C3 grassland, and also shrubs, which have not been considered here. The climatic envelope of the evergreen needleleaf forests overlaps with the cold deciduous broadleaf forests, and there is considerable overlap between the drought deciduous and evergreen broadleaf forests. In all of these cases, grassland and cultivated and managed land are also present at varying frequencies. [\n] The biome concept can be supported by obvious physiognomic and phenological differences, such as between evergreen and deciduous behaviour and between broadleaf and needleleaf structure. However, the climatic overlap between most of these major biomes suggests that longterm history and migration are crucial in underpinning the actual geographical locations. The historical perspective is further amplified when it is realized that grasses, which constitute the new super-biome, through their linkage with all forms of disturbance are slowly advancing on ancient forests, in addition to changing the climate en route (Hoffmann & Jackson 2000). In bringing ecology and history together there is, therefore, a need for much greater emphasis on disturbance, in all its guises, and how it has impacted on land and biome history and phylogeny.
@article{woodwardGlobalClimateDistribution2004,
  title = {Global Climate and the Distribution of Plant Biomes},
  author = {Woodward, F. I. and Lomas, M. R. and Kelly, C. K.},
  date = {2004-10},
  journaltitle = {Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences},
  volume = {359},
  pages = {1465--1476},
  issn = {1471-2970},
  doi = {10.1098/rstb.2004.1525},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2004.1525},
  abstract = {Biomes are areas of vegetation that are characterized by the same life-form. Traditional definitions of biomes have also included either geographical or climatic descriptors. This approach describes a wide range of biomes that can be correlated with characteristic climatic conditions, or climatic envelopes. The application of remote sensing technology to the frequent observation of biomes has led to a move away from the often subjective definition of biomes to one that is objective. Carefully characterized observations of life-form, by satellite, have been used to reconsider biome classification and their climatic envelopes. Five major tree biomes can be recognized by satellites based on leaf longevity and morphology: needleleaf evergreen, broadleaf evergreen, needleleaf deciduous, broadleaf cold deciduous and broadleaf drought deciduous. Observations indicate that broadleaf drought deciduous vegetation grades substantially into broadleaf evergreen vegetation. The needleleaf deciduous biome occurs in the world's coldest climates, where summer drought and therefore a drought deciduous biome are absent.

[\textbackslash n] Traditional biome definitions are quite static, implying no change in their life-form composition with time, within their particular climatic envelopes. However, this is not the case where there has been global ingress of grasslands and croplands into forested vegetation. The global spread of grasses, a new superbiome, was probably initiated 30-45 Myr ago by an increase in global aridity, and was driven by the natural spread of the disturbances of fire and animal grazing. These disturbances have been further extended over the Holocene era by human activities that have increased the land areas available for domestic animal grazing and for growing crops. The current situation is that grasses now occur in most, if not all biomes, and in many areas they dominate and define the biome. Croplands are also increasing, defining a new and relatively recent component to the grassland super-biome. In the case of both grassland and croplands, various forms of disturbance, particularly frequent disturbance, lead to continued range extensions of the biomes.

[Excerpt: Conclusions] Biomes have been defined traditionally by plant physiognomy and geographical distribution or climate. There has been a trend away from this non-observable biome type to one that is based on plant features that are wholly observable by remote sensing satellites. This offers the potential for objective classifications, although this may be difficult to achieve. The approach also offers a high frequency of repeat observations through the year, providing unrivalled large-scale measures of biome phenology and dynamics. Satellite observations, in addition to global fields of climate, indicate that there is only one biome with a unique climatic envelope: the deciduous needleleaf forest (figure 9). Although this biome escapes the cultivated biome there is clear overlap with C3 grassland, and also shrubs, which have not been considered here. The climatic envelope of the evergreen needleleaf forests overlaps with the cold deciduous broadleaf forests, and there is considerable overlap between the drought deciduous and evergreen broadleaf forests. In all of these cases, grassland and cultivated and managed land are also present at varying frequencies.

[\textbackslash n] The biome concept can be supported by obvious physiognomic and phenological differences, such as between evergreen and deciduous behaviour and between broadleaf and needleleaf structure. However, the climatic overlap between most of these major biomes suggests that longterm history and migration are crucial in underpinning the actual geographical locations. The historical perspective is further amplified when it is realized that grasses, which constitute the new super-biome, through their linkage with all forms of disturbance are slowly advancing on ancient forests, in addition to changing the climate en route (Hoffmann \& Jackson 2000). In bringing ecology and history together there is, therefore, a need for much greater emphasis on disturbance, in all its guises, and how it has impacted on land and biome history and phylogeny.},
  keywords = {*imported-from-citeulike-INRMM,~INRMM-MiD:c-13966522,~to-add-doi-URL,biome,broadleaved,climate,conifers,deciduous,ecological-zones,evergreen,forest-resources,fuzzy,grasslands},
  number = {1450}
}
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